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Nikola Tesla

Nikola Tesla
File:Tesla aged 36.jpeg
Tesla, aged 37, 1893, photo by Napoleon Sarony
Born 10 July 1856
Smiljan, Austrian Empire (modern-dayCroatia)
Died 7 January 1943 (aged 86)
Manhattan, New York, USA
Residence modern-day Croatia
Budapest, modern-day Hungary
France
Manhattan, USA
Citizenship Austrian Empire (10 July 1856 – 1867)
Austria-Hungary (1867 – 31 October 1918)
United States (30 July 1891 – 7 January 1943)
Nationality American
Fields Electrical engineering
Mechanical engineering
Institutions Edison Machine Works
Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing
Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Co.
Alma mater Higher Real Gymnasium
Graz University of Technology (dropped out)
Known for
Influences Ernst Mach, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe,Mark Twain, Swami Vivekananda, Voltaire
Influenced Gano Dunn
Notable awards
Signature

Nikola Tesla (10 July 1856 – 7 January 1943) was a Serbian-American[2][3][4] inventor, electrical engineer, mechanical engineer, physicist, and futurist best known for his contributions to the design of the modern alternating current (AC) electrical supply system.[5]

Tesla started working in the telephony and electrical fields before emigrating to the United States in 1884 to work for Thomas Edison. He soon struck out on his own with financial backers, setting up laboratories/companies to develop a range of electrical devices. His patented AC induction motor and transformer were licensed by George Westinghouse, who also hired Tesla as a consultant to help develop an alternating current system. Tesla is also known for his high-voltage, high-frequency power experiments in New York and Colorado Springs which included patented devices and theoretical work used in the invention of radio communication,[6] for his X-ray experiments, and for his ill-fated attempt at intercontinental wireless transmission in his unfinished Wardenclyffe Tower project.[7]

Tesla’s achievements and his abilities as a showman demonstrating his seemingly miraculous inventions made him world-famous.[8] Although he made a great deal of money from his patents, he spent a lot on numerous experiments over the years. In the last few decades of his life, he ended up living in diminished circumstances as a recluse in Room 3327 of New Yorker Hotel, occasionally making unusual statements to the press.[9][10][11] Because of his pronouncements and the nature of his work over the years, Tesla gained a reputation in popular culture as the archetypal “mad scientist.”[12][13] He died penniless and in debt on 7 January 1943.[14][15][16][17]

Tesla’s work fell into relative obscurity after his death, but since the 1990s, his reputation has experienced a comeback in popular culture.[18] In 2005, he was listed amongst the top 100 nominees in the TV show The Greatest American, anopen access popularity poll conducted by AOL and The Discovery Channel.[19] His work and reputed inventions are also at the center of many conspiracy theories and have also been used to support various pseudosciences, UFO theories and New Age occultism.

In 1960, in honor of Tesla, the General Conference on Weights and Measures for the International System of Units dedicated the term “tesla” to the SI unit measure for magnetic field strength.[20]

Contents

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Early years (1856-1885)

Tesla’s house (parish hall) in Smiljan, where he was born, and the church, where his father served.

Tesla’s baptismal record, c. 28 June 1856.

Nikola Tesla was born on 10 July (O.S. 28 June) 1856 to Serb parents in the village of Smiljan, Austrian Empire (modern-day Croatia). His father, Milutin Tesla, was a priest of the Serbian Orthodox Church.[21] Tesla’s mother, Đuka Tesla (néeMandić), whose father was also a Serbian Orthodox priest,[22] had a talent for making home craft tools and for memorizing many Serbian epic poems, even though she had never learned how to read.[23] Tesla’s progenitors were from Western Serbia, near Montenegro.[24]

Nikola was the fourth of five children. He had an older brother named Dane and three sisters, Milka, Angelina and Marica. Dane was killed in a horse-riding accident when Nikola was five.[25][26] Some accounts say that Tesla caused the accident by frightening the horse.[26]

In 1861, Nikola attended the “Lower” or “Primary” School in Smiljan, Austrian Empire, where he studied German, arithmetic, and religion.[27]

In 1862, the Tesla family moved to Gospić, Austrian Empire, where Nikola’s father worked as a pastor. Nikola completed “Lower” or “Primary” School, followed by the “Lower Real Gymnasium” or “Normal School.”[28]

In 1870, Tesla moved to Karlovac, Croatia, to attend school at Higher Real Gymnasium, where he was profoundly influenced by a math teacher, Martin Sekulić.[29][30] Tesla was able to perform integral calculus in his head, which prompted his teachers to believe that he was cheating.[31] He finished a four-year term in just three years, graduating in 1873.[32]

In 1873, Tesla returned to his hometown, Smiljan. Shortly after he arrived, Tesla contracted cholera; he was bedridden for nine months and was near death multiple times. Nikola’s father, in a moment of despair, promised to send him to the best engineering school if he recovered from the illness[33][34] (his father had originally wanted him to enter the priesthood).[35]

In 1874, Tesla evaded being drafted into the army in Smiljan[36] by running away to Tomingaj, near Gračac. There, he explored the mountains in hunter’s garb. Tesla claimed that this contact with nature made him stronger, both physically and mentally.[37] He read many books while in Tomingaj, and later claimed that Mark Twain’s works had helped him to miraculously recover from his earlier illness.[34]

Tesla wearing the Serbian national costume, c.1880.

In 1875, Tesla enrolled at Austrian Polytechnic in Graz, Austria, on a Military Border scholarship. During his first year Tesla never missed a lecture, earned the highest grades possible, passed nine exams[34][38] (nearly twice as many required[39]), started a Serbian culture club,[38] and even received a letter of commendation from the dean of the technical faculty to his father, which stated, “Your son is a star of first rank.”[40] Tesla claimed that he worked from 3 a.m. to 11 p.m., no Sundays or holidays excepted.[34] He was “mortified when [his] father made light of [those] hard won honors.” After his father’s death in 1879,[36] Tesla found a package of letters from his professors to his father, warning that unless he were removed from the school, Tesla would be killed through overwork.[34] During his second year, Tesla came into conflict with Professor Poeschl over the Gramme dynamo when Tesla suggested that commutators weren’t necessary. At the end of his second year, Tesla lost his scholarship and became addicted to gambling.[34][38] During his third year, Tesla gambled away his allowance and his tuition money, later gambling back his initial losses and returning the balance to his family. Tesla claimed that he “conquered [his] passion then and there,” but later he was known to play billiards in the US. When exam time came, Tesla was unprepared and asked for an extension to study, but was denied. He never graduated from the university and did not receive grades for the last semester.[36]

In December 1878, Tesla left Graz and severed all relations with his family to hide the fact that he dropped out of school.[36] His friends thought that he had drowned in the Mur River.[41] Tesla went to Maribor (now in Slovenia), where he worked as a draftsman for 60 florins a month. He spent his spare time playing cards with local men on the streets.[36] In March 1879, Milutin Tesla went to Maribor to beg his son to return home, but Nikola refused.[42] Nikola suffered anervous breakdown at around the same time.[41]

Tesla aged 23, c.1879

On 24 March 1879, Tesla was returned to Gospić under police guard for not having a residence permit. On 17 April 1879, Milutin Tesla died at the age of 60 after contracting an unspecified illness[43] (although some sources claim that he died of a stroke[44] ). During that year, Tesla taught a large class of students in his old school, Higher Real Gymnasium, in Gospić.[45]

In January 1880, two of Tesla’s uncles put together enough money to help him leave Gospić[clarification needed] for Prague where he was to study. Unfortunately, he arrived too late to matriculate at Charles-Ferdinand University because he arrived too late to be able enroll; he never studied Greek, a required subject; and he was illiterate in Czech, another required subject. Tesla did, however, attend lectures at the university, although, as an auditor, he did not receive grades for the courses.[46][47][48]

In 1881, Tesla moved to Budapest to work under Ferenc Puskas at a telegraph company, the Budapest Telephone Exchange. Upon arrival, Tesla realized that the company, then under construction, was not functional, so he worked as a draftsman in the Central Telegraph Office, instead. Within a few months, the Budapest Telephone Exchange became functional and Tesla was allocated the chief electrician position.[49] During his employment, Tesla made many improvements to the Central Station equipment and claimed to have perfected a telephone repeater or amplifier, which was never patented or publicly described.[34]

Working for Edison

In 1882, Tesla began working for the Continental Edison Company in France, designing and making improvements to electrical equipment.[50]

In June 1884, Tesla relocated to New York City.[51] During his trip across the Atlantic, his ticket, money, and some of his luggage were stolen, and he was nearly thrown overboard after a mutiny broke out on the ship.[52] He arrived with only four cents in his pocket, a letter of recommendation, a few poems, and the remainder of his belongings.[citation needed]

In the letter of recommendation from Charles Batchelor, a former employer, to Thomas Edison, it is claimed that Batchelor wrote, “I know two great men and you are one of them; the other is this young man.” (the exact contents of the letter is disputed in McNichol’s book). Edison hired Tesla to work for his Edison Machine Works. Tesla’s work for Edison began with simple electrical engineering and quickly progressed to solving some of the company’s most difficult problems. Tesla was even offered the task of completely redesigning the Edison Company’s direct current generators.[53]

In 1885, Tesla claimed that he could redesign Edison’s inefficient motor and generators, making an improvement in both service and economy. According to Tesla, Edison remarked, “There’s fifty thousand dollars in it for you—if you can do it”[54]—this has been noted as an odd statement from an Edison whose company was stingy with pay and who did not have that sort of cash on hand.[55] After months of work, Tesla fulfilled the task and inquired about payment. Edison, claiming that he was only joking, replied, “Tesla, you don’t understand our American humor.”[56][57] Instead, Edison offered a US$10 a week raise over Tesla’s US$18 per week salary; Tesla refused the offer and immediately resigned.[54]

Middle years (1886-1899)

In 1886, Tesla formed his own company, Tesla Electric Light & Manufacturing.[58] The company installed electrical arc light based illumination systems designed by Tesla and also had designs for dynamo electric machine commutators, the first patents issued to Tesla in the US.[59]

Drawing from U.S. Patent 381,968, illustrating principle of Tesla’s alternating current motor

In 1885, Tesla proposed that the company should go on to develop his ideas for alternating current transmission systems and motors. The investors disagreed and eventually fired him, leaving him penniless; Tesla was forced to work as a ditch digger for US$2 per day. Tesla considered the winter of 1886/1887 as a time of “terrible headaches and bitter tears.” During this time, he questioned the value of his education.[59][60]

In April 1887, Tesla started a company, the Tesla Electric Company, with the backing of New York attorney Charles F. Peck and Alfred S. Brown, the director of Western Union. They set up a laboratory for Tesla at 89 Liberty St. in Manhattan so he could work on his alternating current motor and other devices for power distribution, with an agreement that they share fifty-fifty with Tesla any profits generated from patents.[61] It was here in 1887 that Tesla constructed a brushless alternating current induction motor, based on a rotating magnetic field principle he claimed to have conceived of in 1882.[62] He received a US patent for the motor in May 1888.[63] At that time many inventors were trying to develop workable AC motors[64] because AC’s advantages in long distance high voltage transmission were counterbalanced by the inability to operate motors on AC. The rotating magnetic field induction motor seems to have been an independent invention by Tesla but it was not a unique discovery at the time.[65] Italian physicist Galileo Ferraris published a paper on rotating magnetic field based induction motor on 11 March 1888,[66][67][68][69] a working model of which he may have been demonstrating at the University of Turin as early as 1885.[70][71][72] In 1888, a month before Tesla demonstrated his AC induction motor, Westinghouse engineer Oliver B. Shallenberger invented an induction meter that was based on the same rotating magnetic field principle[73][74] and during Tesla’s demonstration English engineer Elihu Thomsonstated he was working on an induction motor.[75]

In 1888, the editor of Electrical World magazine, Thomas Commerford Martin (a friend and publicist), arranged for Tesla to demonstrate his alternating current system, including his induction motor, at the American Institute of Electrical Engineers (now IEEE).[76] Engineers working for the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company reported to George Westinghouse that Tesla had a viable AC motor and power system—something that Westinghouse had been trying to secure. In July 1888 Brown and Peck negotiated a licensing deal with George Westinghouse for Tesla’s polyphase induction motor and transformer designs for $60,000 in cash and stock and a royalty of $2.50 per AC horsepower produced by each motor. Westinghouse also hired Tesla for one year for the large fee of $2,000 a month to be a consultant at the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company’s Pittsburgh labs.[77]

During that year, Tesla worked in Pittsburgh, helping to create an alternating current system to power the city’s streetcars. He found the time there frustrating because of conflicts between him and the other Westinghouse engineers over how to best implement AC power. Between them they settled on a 60-cycle AC current system Tesla proposed (to match the working frequency of Tesla’s motor), although they soon found that, since Tesla’s induction motor could only run at a constant speed, it would not work for street cars. They ended up using a DC traction motor instead.[78]

Wireless transmission of power and energy demonstration during his 1891 lecture on high frequency and potential.

Tesla demonstrated wireless energy transmission (Tesla effect) as early as 1891.[79][80]

In 1891, Tesla patented the Tesla coil.[81]

American citizenship

On 30 July 1891, at the age of 35, Tesla became a naturalized citizen of the United States. He told many of his companions that he valued the citizenship more than any scientific honors that he had acquired.[82]

In the same year, Tesla established his South Fifth Avenue laboratory in New York. Later, he established his Houston Street laboratory in New York at 46 E. Houston Street. He lit electric lamps wirelessly at both of the New York locations, providing evidence for the potential of wireless power transmission.[83]

In 1892, Nikola spent a few months in Europe visiting other scientists. He later went to visit his hometown,[84] arriving from Paris hours before his mother’s death.[85] He stayed at her side until he was exhausted. Nikola was awakened from a dream, in which an angel bearing resemblance to his mother appeared. He wrote: “I was wakened up by an indescribably sweet song of many voices.” He believed that the dream was a sign that his mother had died; he later confirmed this.[84] Her last words to him were: “You’ve arrived, Nidžo, my pride.”[85] At first, Tesla believed that the dream was a message from the supernatural; however, after a few months of research, he concluded that his dream was caused by a painting of angels that he had seen before going to bed and that the singing voices had been from a nearby church.[84]

After the death of his mother, Nikola became ill and spent two to three weeks recovering in Gospić and Tomingaj.[85]

From 1892 to 1894, Tesla served as the vice president of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, the forerunner (along with the Institute of Radio Engineers) of the modern-day IEEE.[86]

Tesla investigated harvesting energy in space. He believed that it was merely a question of time until men would succeed in attaching their machinery to the very wheelwork of nature, stating: “Ere many generations pass, our machinery will be driven by a power obtainable at any point of the universe.”[87]

Nikola Tesla’s AC dynamo-electric machine (Electric generator) used to generate AC which is used to transport electricity across great distances. It is contained in U.S. Patent 390,721.

In 1893, Westinghouse won the bid to electrify the 1893 World’s Columbian Exposition in Chicago with alternating current. This World’s Fair devoted a building to electrical exhibits. It was a key event in the history of AC power as Westinghouse and Tesla demonstrated the safety and reliability of alternating current to the American public.[88] At the Columbian Exposition, Tesla demonstrated a series of electrical effects in a lecture he had performed throughout America and Europe.[89] This included using high-voltage, high-frequency alternating current to light a wireless gas-discharge lamp.[90] An observer noted:

Within the room was suspended two hard-rubber plates covered with tin foil. These were about fifteen feet apart, and served as terminals of the wires leading from the transformers. When the current was turned on, the lamps or tubes, which had no wires connected to them, but lay on a table between the suspended plates, or which might be held in the hand in almost any part of the room, were made luminous. These were the same experiments and the same apparatus shown by Tesla in London about two years previous, “where they produced so much wonder and astonishment.”[91]

Tesla also explained the principles of a rotating magnetic field and induction motor by demonstrating how to make a copper egg stand on end. The device he constructed is known as the “Egg of Columbus.”[92]

As a result of the “War of Currents,” Edison and Westinghouse went nearly bankrupt. Edison had lost control of his company to J. P. Morgan and Morgan was refusing to loan more money to Westinghouse due to the financial strain of the Tesla AC patents[93][94] (at that point Westinghouse had paid out an estimated $200,000 in licenses and royalties to Tesla, Brown, and Peck[95]). In 1897 Westinghouse explained his financial difficulties to Tesla in stark terms, saying that if things continue the way they were he would no longer be in control of Westinghouse Electric and Tesla would have to “deal with the bankers” to try to collect future royalties. Westinghouse convinced Tesla to release his company from the licensing agreement over Tesla’s AC patents in exchange for Westinghouse Electric purchasing the patents for a lump sum payment of $216,000;[96] this provided Westinghouse a break from what, due to alternating current’s rapid gain in popularity, had turned out to be an overly generous $2.50 per AC horsepower royalty.[77]

X-ray experimentation

X-ray of Tesla’s hand—one of the earliest x-ray photographs.

Starting in 1894, Tesla began investigating what he referred to as radiant energy of “invisible” kinds that he had noticed damaged film in his lab in previous experiments[97][98] (later identified as “Roentgen rays” or “X-Rays“). His early experiments were with Crookes tubes, a cold cathode electrical discharge tube. Tesla may have been the first person in North America to accidentally capture an X-ray image[99] when he tried to photograph Mark Twain illuminated by an earlier type of gas discharge tube Geissler tube in 1895. The only thing captured in the image was the metal locking screw on the camera lens. Soon after, much of Tesla’s early research—hundreds of invention models, plans, notes, laboratory data, tools, photographs, valued at $50,000—was lost in the 5th Avenue laboratory fire of March 1895. Tesla is quoted by The New York Times as saying, “I am in too much grief to talk. What can I say?”[100]

In March 1896, after hearing of Wilhelm Röntgen‘s discovery of X-ray and X-ray imaging (radiography),[101] Tesla proceeded to do his own experiments in X-ray imaging, developing a high energy single terminal vacuum tube of his own design that had no target electrode and that worked from the output of the Tesla Coil (the modern term for the phenomenon produced by this device is bremsstrahlung (or braking radiation). In his research, Tesla devised several experimental setups to produce X-rays. Tesla held that, with his circuits, the “instrument will [… enable one to] generate Roentgen rays of much greater power than obtainable with ordinary apparatus.”[102]

Tesla noted the hazards of working with his circuit and single-node X-ray-producing devices. In his many notes on the early investigation of this phenomenon, he attributed the skin damage to various causes. He believed early on that damage to the skin was not caused by the Roentgen rays, but by the ozone generated in contact with the skin, and to a lesser extent, by nitrous acid. Tesla incorrectly believed that X-rays were longitudinal waves, such as those produced in waves in plasma. These plasma waves can occur in force-free magnetic fields.[103][104]

On 11 July 1934, the New York Herald Tribune published an article on Tesla, in which he recalled an event that would occasionally take place while experimenting with his single-electrode vacuum tubes; a minute particle would break off the cathode, pass out of the tube, and physically strike him. “Tesla said he could feel a sharp stinging pain where it entered his body, and again at the place where it passed out.” In comparing these particles with the bits of metal projected by his “electric gun”, Tesla said, “The particles in the beam of force … will travel much faster than such particles . .. and they will travel in concentrations.”[105]

Radio

Tesla’s theories on the possibility of the transmission by radio waves go back as far as lectures and demonstrations in 1893 in St. Louis, Missouri, the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, and the National Electric Light Association.[106]Tesla’s demonstrations and principles were written about widely through various media outlets.[87] Many devices such as the Tesla Coil were used in the further development of radio.[6]

Tesla’s radio wave experiments in 1896 were conducted in Gerlach Hotel (later renamed The Radio Wave building), where he resided.[107]

In 1898, Tesla demonstrated a radio-controlled boat (U.S. Patent 613,809 —Method of an Apparatus for Controlling Mechanism of Moving Vehicle or Vehicles).

In 1898, Tesla demonstrated a radio-controlled boat—which he dubbed “teleautomaton”—to the public during an electrical exhibition at Madison Square Garden.[1] The crowd that witnessed the demonstration made outrageous claims about the workings of the boat: everything from magic and telepathy to being piloted by a trained monkey hidden inside.[108] Tesla tried to sell his idea to the U.S. military as a type of radio-controlled torpedo, but they showed little interest.[109] Remote radio control remained a novelty until World War I and afterward, when a number of countries used it in military programs.[citation needed]

In 1900, Tesla was granted patents for “system of transmitting electrical energy” and “an electrical transmitter.” When Guglielmo Marconi made his famous first ever transatlantic radio transmission in 1901, Tesla quipped that it was done with 17 Tesla patents. This was the beginning of years of patent battles over radio with Tesla’s patents being upheld in 1903, followed by a reverse decision in favor of Marconi in 1904. In 1943, a Supreme Court of the United States decision restored the prior patents of Tesla, Oliver Lodge, and John Stone.[110] The court declared that their decision had no bearing on Marconi’s claim as the first to achieve radio transmission, just that since Marconi’s claim to certain patents were questionable, he could not claim infringement on those same patents[111] (there are claims the high court was trying to nullify a World War I claim against the U.S. government by the Marconi Company via simply restoring Tesla’s prior patent).[110]

On 13 May 1899, while on his way to Colorado Springs, Colorado, Tesla stopped by a meeting of the Commercial Club in Chicago, Illinois for his “Teleautomatics” address/demonstration.[112]

Colorado Springs

Multiple exposure publicity picture of Tesla sitting in his Colorado Springs laboratory with his “Magnifying transmitter” generating millions of volts and producing 7 meter (23 ft) long arcs.

Tesla holding a phosphor-coated gas-discharge lamp, illuminated by wireless electricity. Colorado Springs, 1899.

An experiment in Colorado Springs. This bank of lights is receiving power by means of electrodynamic induction from an oscillator 100 feet (30 m) from the bulbs

A Colorado Springs experiment: here a grounded tuned coil in resonance with a distant transmitter illuminates a light near the bottom of the picture.

On 17 May 1899, Tesla moved to Colorado Springs, where he would have room for his high-voltage, high-frequency experiments;[112] his lab was located near Foote Ave. and Kiowa St.[113] He chose this location because the polyphase alternating current power distribution system had been introduced there and he had associates who were willing to give him all the power he needed without charging for it.[114] Upon his arrival, he told reporters that he was conducting wireless telegraphy experiments, transmitting signals from Pikes Peak to Paris.[citation needed]

On 15 June 1899, Tesla performed his first experiments at his Colorado Springs lab; he recorded his initial spark length at five inches long, but very thick and noisy.[112]

Tesla investigated atmospheric electricity, observing lightning signals via his receivers. Reproductions of Tesla’s receivers and coherer circuits show an unpredicted level of complexity: distributed high-Q helical resonators, radio frequency feedback, crude heterodyne effects, and regeneration techniques.[115] Tesla stated that he observed stationary waves during this time.[116]

Tesla’s diary contains explanations of his experiments concerning the ionosphere and the ground’s telluric currents via transverse waves and longitudinal waves.[117] He researched ways to transmit energy wirelessly over long distances (via transverse waves, to a lesser extent, and, more readily, longitudinal waves). He transmitted extremely low frequencies through the ground as well as between the earth’s surface and the Kennelly–Heaviside layer. Tesla received U.S. Patent 645,576 for wireless transceivers that developed standing waves by this method. In his experiments, he made mathematical calculations and computations based on his experiments and discovered that the resonant frequency of the earth was approximately 8 hertz (Hz)[118] (later confirmed by researchers in the 1950s—named the Schumann resonance).[119] Tesla sent electrostatic forces through natural media across a conductor situated in the changing magnetic flux and transferred electrical energy to a wireless receiver.[citation needed]

At his lab, Tesla proved that the earth was a conductor. He produced artificial lightning (with discharges consisting of millions of volts and up to 135 feet long).[120] Thunder from the released energy was heard 15 miles away in Cripple Creek, Colorado. People walking along the street observed sparks jumping between their feet and the ground. Electricity sprang from a tap whenever someone turned them on. Light bulbs within 100 feet of the lab glowed even when turned off. Horses in a livery stable bolted from their stalls after receiving shocks through their metal shoes. Butterflies were electrified, swirling in circles with blue halos of St. Elmo’s fire around their wings.[121]

While experimenting, Tesla accidentally short-circuited the generator, causing a power outage. In August 1917, Tesla explained what had happened in The Electrical Experimenter: “As an example of what has been done with several hundred kilowatts of high frequency energy liberated, it was found that the dynamos in a power house six miles away were repeatedly burned out, due to the powerful high frequency currents set up in them, and which caused heavy sparks to jump thru the windings and destroy the insulation!”[122]

At his lab, Tesla observed unusual signals (which he interpreted as 1—2—3—4), which he later believed were extraterrestrial radio wave communications coming from Mars. He noticed repetitive signals from his receiver which were substantially different from the signals that he had noted from noise of storms and the earth.[123] Specifically, he later recalled that the signals appeared in groups of one, two, three, and four clicks together.[citation needed] Tesla was highly criticized upon revealing his finding.[112] Tesla had mentioned that he thought his inventions could be used to talk with other planets.[citation needed] It is debatable what type of signals Tesla received or whether he picked up anything at all. Research has suggested that Tesla may have had a misunderstanding of the new technology he was working with,[citation needed] or that the signals Tesla observed may have been from a non-terrestrial natural radio source such as the Jovian plasma torus signals.[124] Other sources hypothesize that he may have intercepted Marconi’s European experiments—in December 1901, Marconi successfully transmitted the letter S (dot/dot/dot, the same three impulses that Tesla claimed to have received from outer space while at Colorado in 1899) from Poldhu, England to Signal Hill, Newfoundland (now part of Canada)—or signals from another experimenter in wireless transmission.[125]

In 1899, John Jacob Astor IV invested $100,000 for Tesla to further develop and produce a new lighting system. Instead, Tesla used the money to fund his Colorado Springs experiments.[126]

On 7 January 1900, Tesla left Colorado Springs.[citation needed] His lab was torn down ca. 1905 and its contents were sold to satisfy a debt.[citation needed]

The Colorado experiments had prepared Tesla for the establishment of the trans-Atlantic wireless telecommunications facility known as Wardenclyffe near Shoreham, Long Island.[127]

Wardenclyffe years (1900–1917)

Main article: Wardenclyffe Tower

Tesla Ready for Business – 7 August 1901 New-York tribune article

The Tesla coil wireless transmitter
U.S. Patent 1,119,732

Tesla’s Wardenclyffe plant on Long Island in 1904. From this facility, Tesla hoped to demonstrate wireless transmission of electrical energy across the Atlantic.

In 1900, with US$150,000 (more than $3 million today; 51% from J. Pierpont Morgan), Tesla began planning the Wardenclyffe Tower facility.[128]

Tesla later approached Morgan to ask for more funds to build a more powerful transmitter. When asked where all the money had gone, Tesla responded by saying that he was affected by the Panic of 1901, which he (Morgan) had caused. Morgan was shocked by the reminder of his part in the stock market crash and by Tesla’s breach of contract by asking for more funds. Tesla wrote another plea to Morgan, but it was also fruitless. Morgan still owed Tesla money on the original agreement, and Tesla had been facing foreclosure even before construction of the tower began.[125]

In December 1901, Marconi successfully transmitted the letter S from England to Newfoundland, terminating Tesla’s relationship with Morgan. Over the next 5 years, Tesla wrote over 50 letters to Morgan, pleading for and demanding additional funding to complete the construction of Wardenclyffe. Tesla continued his project for another nine months. The tower was raised to its full 187 feet.[125] In July 1903, Tesla wrote to Morgan that in addition to wireless communication, Wardenclyffe would be capable of wireless transmission of electric power.[129] On 14 October 1904, Morgan finally replied through his secretary, stating, “It will be impossible for [me/ Morgan] to do anything in the matter,” after Tesla had written to Morgan when the financier was meeting with the Archbishop of Canterbury in an attempt to appeal to his Christian spirit.[125]

In June 1902, Tesla’s lab operations were moved to Wardenclyffe from Houston Street.[129]

On his 50th birthday in 1906, Tesla demonstrated his 200 hp (150 kW) 16,000 rpm bladeless turbine. During 1910–1911 at the Waterside Power Station in New York, several of his bladeless turbine engines were tested at 100–5,000 hp.[130]

Tesla invented a steam-powered mechanical oscillator—Tesla’s oscillator. At his Houston Street lab, while experimenting with mechanical oscillators, Tesla allegedly generated a resonance of several buildings, causing complaints to the police. As the speed grew, it is said that the machine oscillated at the resonance frequency of his own building and, belatedly realizing the danger, he was forced to use a sledge hammer to terminate the experiment, just as the police arrived.[131] In February 1912, an article—“Nikola Tesla, Dreamer” by Allan L. Benson—was published in World Today, in which an artist’s illustration appears showing the entire earth cracking in half with the caption, “Tesla claims that in a few weeks he could set the earth’s crust into such a state of vibration that it would rise and fall hundreds of feet and practically destroy civilization. A continuation of this process would, he says, eventually split the earth in two.”[105]

After Wardenclyffe, Tesla built the Telefunken Wireless Station in Sayville, Long Island. Some of what he wanted to achieve at Wardenclyffe was accomplished with the Telefunken Wireless.[132] In 1917 the tower was seized and blown up with dynamite for scrap by the Marines, owing to fears that German spies were using it and that it could be used as a landmark for German submarines.[132][133][134]

Before World War I (1914–1918), Tesla looked overseas for investors to fund his research. When the war started, Tesla lost the funding he was receiving from his patents in European countries.

During this time, Tesla was staying at Waldorf-Astoria Hotel,[128] renting in an arrangement for deferred payments.[citation needed] Eventually, the Wardenclyffe deed was turned over toGeorge Boldt, proprietor of the Waldorf-Astoria, to pay a US$20,000 debt (about $400,000 today).[129] In 1917, around the time that the Wardenclyffe Tower was demolished by Boldt to make the land a more viable real estate asset, Tesla received AIEE’s highest honor, the Edison Medal.[citation needed]

In August 1917, Tesla first established the principles of frequency and power level for the first primitive radar units.[132]

Nobel Prize rumors

On 6 November 1915, a Reuters news agency report from London had the 1915 Nobel Prize in Physics awarded to Thomas Edison and Nikola Tesla; however, on 15 November, a Reuters story from Stockholm stated the prize that year was being awarded to Sir William Henry Bragg and William Lawrence Bragg “for their services in the analysis of crystal structure by means of X-rays.”[135][136][137] There were unsubstantiated rumors at the time that Tesla and/or Edison had refused the prize.[138] The Nobel Foundation declined to comment on the rumors other than saying, “Any rumor that a person has not been given a Nobel Prize because he has made known his intention to refuse the reward is ridiculous,” a recipient could only decline a Nobel Prize after he is announced a winner.[136]

There have been subsequent claims by Tesla biographers that Edison and Tesla were the original recipients and that neither were given the award because of their animosity toward each other; that each sought to minimize the other’s achievements and right to win the award; that both refused ever to accept the award if the other received it first; that both rejected any possibility of sharing it; and even that a wealthy Edison refused it to keep Tesla from getting the $20,000 prize money.[23][136][139]

In the years after these rumors, neither Tesla nor Edison won the prize (although Edison did receive one of 38 possible bids in 1915 and Tesla did receive one bid out of 38 possible bids in 1937).[140]

Later years (1918-1943)

Tesla (9th from left), along with some of the greatest scientists at that time, including Albert Einstein (8th from left), taking an inspection tour of the New Brunswick Marconi Station. Circa 1921.[141]

In 1928, Tesla received his last patent, U.S. Patent 1,655,114, for a biplane capable of taking off vertically (VTOL aircraft) and then be “gradually tilted through manipulation of the elevator devices” in flight until it was flying like a conventional plane.[142] Tesla stated it would weigh 800 pounds and would sell at $1,000 for both military and consumer uses.[citation needed] Although the aircraft was probably impractical, it may be the earliest known design for what became the tiltrotor/tilt-wing concept as well as the earliest proposal for the use of turbine engines in rotor aircraft.[143]

Starting in 1934 the Westinghouse Electric & Manufacturing Company began paying Tesla US$125 per month as well paying his rent at the Hotel New Yorker, expenses the Company would pay for the rest of Tesla’s life. Accounts on how this came about vary. Several sources say Westinghouse was worried about potential bad publicity surrounding the impoverished conditions their former star inventor was living under.[144][145][146] It has been described as being couched in the form of a “consulting fee” to get around Tesla’s aversion to accept charity, or by one biographer (Marc Seifer), as a type of unspecified settlement.[147] Tesla’s previous debt owed to Hotel Governor Clinton was never satisfied.[148]

In 1934, Tesla wrote to Consul Janković of his homeland.[citation needed] The letter contained a message of gratitude to Mihajlo Pupin who had initiated a donation scheme by which American companies could support Tesla.[citation needed] Tesla refused the assistance, choosing instead to live on a modest pension received from Yugoslavia, and to continue his research.[citation needed]

In 1935, in an annual birthday celebration interview, Tesla announced a method of transmitting mechanical energy with minimal loss over any terrestrial distance, a related new means of communication, and a method of accurately determining the location of underground mineral deposits.[105]

In 1936, Tesla replied to a birthday telegram from Vladko Maček, saying that he was “equally proud” of his “Serbian origin and Croatian homeland,”[149] a phrase often paraphrased in conciliatory context at modern-day joint Croatian-Serbian Tesla celebrations.[150] In addition, in the same telegram, Tesla wrote “Long live all Yugoslavs.”[151] When others tried to co-opt him into ethnic and other conflicts in Yugoslavia, Tesla replied: “If your hate could be turned into electricity, it would light up the whole world.”[149]

In the fall of 1937, after midnight one night, Tesla left the Hotel New Yorker to make his regular commute to the cathedral and the library to feed the pigeons. While crossing a street a couple of blocks from the hotel, Tesla was unable to dodge a moving taxicab and was thrown heavily to the ground. Tesla’s back was severely wrenched and three of his ribs were broken in the accident (the full extent of his injuries will never be known; Tesla refused to consult a doctor—an almost lifelong custom). Tesla didn’t raise any question as to who was at fault and refused medical aid, only asking be taken to his hotel via cab. Tesla was bedridden for some months and was unable to continue feeding pigeons from his window; soon, they failed to come. In the spring of 1938, Tesla was able to get up. He at once resumed the pigeons—feeding walks on a much more limited scale, but frequently had a messenger act for him.[152]

Directed-energy weapon

Main article: Teleforce

Later in life, Tesla made claims concerning a “teleforce” weapon after studying the Van de Graaff generator.[153][154] The press called it a “peace ray” or death ray.[155][156] Tesla described the weapon as being able to be used against ground based infantry or for antiaircraft purposes.

Tesla gives the following description concerning the particle gun‘s operation:

[The nozzle would] send concentrated beams of particles through the free air, of such tremendous energy that they will bring down a fleet of 10,000 enemy airplanes at a distance of 200 miles from a defending nation’s border and will cause armies to drop dead in their tracks.[157][158]

In total, the components and methods included:

  • An apparatus for producing manifestations of energy in free air instead of in a high vacuum as in the past.
  • A mechanism for generating tremendous electrical force.
  • A means of intensifying and amplifying the force developed by the second mechanism.
  • A new method for producing a tremendous electrical repelling force. This would be the projector, or gun, of the invention.[159][160]

Tesla claimed to have worked on plans for a directed-energy weapon from the early 1900s until his death.[161][162]

In 1937, at a luncheon in his honor concerning the death ray, Tesla stated, “But it is not an experiment… I have built, demonstrated and used it. Only a little time will pass before I can give it to the world.” His records indicate that the device is based on a narrow stream of small tungstenpellets that are accelerated via high voltage (by means akin to his magnifying transformer).[154]

During the same year, Tesla wrote a treatise, “The Art of Projecting Concentrated Non-dispersive Energy through the Natural Media,” concerning charged particle beam weapons.[163] Tesla published the document in an attempt to expound on the technical description of a “superweapon that would put an end to all war.” This treatise is currently in the Nikola Tesla Museum archive in Belgrade. It describes an open-ended vacuum tube with a gas jet seal that allows particles to exit, a method of charging particles to millions of volts, and a method of creating and directing non-dispersive particle streams (through electrostatic repulsion).[163] Tesla tried to interest the US War Department,[164] the United Kingdom, the Soviet Union, and Yugoslavia in the device.[165]

During the period in which the negotiations were being carried on, Tesla claimed that efforts had been made to steal the invention. His room had been entered and his papers had been scrutinized, but the thieves, or spies, left empty-handed. He said that there was no danger that his invention could be stolen for he had at no time committed any part of it to paper. The blueprint for the teleforce weapon was all in his mind.[166]

Death

Gilded urn with Tesla’s ashes, in his favorite geometrical object of sphere, Nikola Tesla Museum, Belgrade.

On 7 January 1943, Tesla, 86, died alone in Room 3327 of the New Yorker Hotel. His corpse was later found by maid Alice Monaghan after she had entered Tesla’s room, ignoring the “do not disturb” sign that Tesla had had placed on his door two days prior to his death. Assistant medical examiner, H. W. Wembly, was called to the scene; after examining of the body, he ruled that the cause of death had been coronary thrombosis and that there had been no suspicious circumstances.[167]

Despite having sold his AC electricity patents, Tesla died penniless and in debt.[14][15][16][17]

Tesla’s remains were taken to the Frank E. Campbell Funeral Home at Madison Ave. and 81st St. A sculptor was commissioned by Hugo Gernsback, a long-time friend and supporter of Tesla, to create a death mask (now displayed in the Nikola Tesla Museum).[167]

On 9 January, after learning of Tesla’s death, the FBI ordered the Alien Property Custodian to seize all of Tesla’s belongings,[167] even though Tesla was an American citizen.[168] Tesla’s entire estate from the Hotel New Yorker and other New York City hotels, was transported to the Manhattan Storage and Warehouse Company under OAP seal.[167]

Dr. John G. Trump, a professor at M.I.T. and well-known electrical engineer serving as a technical aide to the National Defense Research Committee, was called in to analyze the Tesla items in OAP custody[167] to look for any material that could be sensitive in nature in relationship to the ongoing war at the time.[citation needed] After a three-day investigation, Trump concluded in his report that there was nothing that would constitute a hazard in unfriendly hands, stating:

[Tesla’s] thoughts and efforts during at least the past 15 years were primarily of a speculative, philosophical, and somewhat promotional character often concerned with the production and wireless transmission of power; but did not include new, sound, workable principles or methods for realizing such results.[169]

In a box purported to contain a part of Tesla’s “death ray,” Trump found a 45 year-old piece of basic electrical test equipment.[170]

A few days after Tesla’s death, the information center of the Yugoslav royal government-in-exile released a statement, giving a short review of Tesla’s achievements and the schedule for his memorial service and funeral.[citation needed]

On 10 January 1943, New York City mayor, Fiorello La Guardia read a eulogy written by Croatian author, Louis Adamić, live over the WNYC radio. Violin pieces, “Ave Maria” and “Tamo Daleko,” were played in the background.[167]

On 12 January, Tesla was given a state funeral at the Cathedral of Saint John the Divine, the largest Gothic cathedral in the world, in New York City. 2,000 people attended. The funeral service was opened by Episcopal Bishop William T. Manning and concluded by the venerable Reverend Dushan J. Shukletovich, rector of the Serbian Orthodox Church of St. Sava. After the funeral, Tesla’s corpse was taken to the Ferncliff Cemetery in Ardsley, New York, where it was later cremated.[167]

On 13 January, a second service was conducted in Serbian by prominent priests of the Serbian Orthodox Cathedral of St. Sava in New York City.[167]

In 1952, after constant pressure from Tesla’s nephew, Sava Kosanović, arrangements were finally made; Tesla’s entire estate (original papers, thousands of letters, photographs and most of Tesla’s inventions including the remote-controlled boat, wireless fluorescent lamps, motors, turbines, etc.) was shipped to Belgrade. The estate was shipped in 80 trunks marked N.T.[171]

In 1957, Ms. Charlotte Muzar, secretary and assistant to Tesla’s nephew, the late Sava Kosanović, delivered Tesla’s ashes from the United States to Belgrade.[172] Tesla’s ashes are currently kept in the third room of the Nikola Tesla Museum, in the gold-plated sphere on a marble pedestal.[173]

Patents

Newspaper representation of Tesla’s theoretical invention, the thought camera, which would photograph thoughts. Circa 1933.

Tesla obtained around 300 patents worldwide for his inventions.[174] Some of Tesla’s patents are not accounted for, and various sources have discovered some that have laid hidden in patent archives. There are a minimum of 278 patents[174] issued to Tesla in 26 countries that have been accounted for. Many of Tesla’s patents were in the United States, Britain, and Canada, but many other patents were approved in countries around the globe.[175] Many inventions developed by Tesla were not put into patent protection.

Personal life

Nikola Tesla’s father Milutin,Serbian Orthodox priest in the village of Smiljan.

Tesla worked every day from 9 A.M. until 6 P.M. or later, with dinner from exactly 8 to 10 pm, at Delmonico’s restaurant and later the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel. Tesla would telephone his dinner order to the headwaiter, who also could be the only one to serve him. “The meal was required to be ready at eight o’clock… He dined alone, except on the rare occasions when he would give a dinner to a group to meet his social obligations. Tesla would then resume his work, often until 3 am.”[176]

For exercise, Tesla walked 8 to 10 miles per day. He squished his toes one hundred times for each foot every night, claiming that it stimulated his brain cells.[177]

In an interview with Arthur Brisbane, a newspaper editor for The World, Tesla said that he did not believe in telepathy, stating, “Suppose I made up my mind to murder you,” he said, “In a second you would know it. Now, isn’t that wonderful? By what process does the mind get at all this?” In the same interview, Tesla said that he believed that all fundamental laws could be reduced to one.[178]

Although Tesla opposed war and believed that war could not be avoided until its cause was removed, he concluded that some wars might be justifiable.[179][not in citation given]

Near the end of his life, Tesla walked to the park every day to feed the pigeons and even bringing injured ones into his hotel room to nurse back to health.[180][181] He claimed that he had been visited by a specific injured white pigeon daily. Tesla spent over US$2,000, including building a device that comfortably supported her so her bones could heal, to fix her broken wing and leg.[36] Tesla stated, “I have been feeding pigeons, thousands of them for years. But there was one, a beautiful bird, pure white with light grey tips on its wings; that one was different. It was a female. I had only to wish and call her and she would come flying to me. I loved that pigeon as a man loves a woman, and she loved me. As long as I had her, there was a purpose to my life.”[182][183]

Tesla became a vegetarian in his later years, living on only milk, bread, honey, and vegetable juices.[154][184]

In his final years, Tesla suffered from extreme sensitivity to light, sound and other influences.[185]

Appearance

Tesla’s portrait—Blue Portrait—from 1916, painted by then-Hungarian princess,Vilma Lwoff-Parlaghy.

Tesla, aged 40. c. 1896

Tesla was 6 ft 2 in (1.88 m) tall and weighed 142 pounds (64 kg), with almost no weight variance from 1888 to about 1926.[186] He was an elegant, stylish figure in New York City, meticulous in his grooming, clothing, and regimented in his daily activities. “This was not because of personal vanity. Neatness and fastidiousness in clothes were entirely in harmony with every other phase of his personality. He did not maintain a large wardrobe and he wore no jewelry of any kind… He observed, however, that in the matter of clothes the world takes a man at his own valuation, as expressed in his appearance, and frequently eases his way to his objective through small courtesies not extended to less prepossessing individuals.”[187]

Although many of Tesla’s progenitors were dark-eyed, his eyes were gray-blue. He claimed that his eyes were originally darker, but as a result of the exorbitant use of his brain, their hue changed. However, his mother and some of his cousins possessed gray eyes, so it can be inferred that the gray of his eyes was inherited.[188]

Arthur Brisbane, a newspaper editor for The World, described Tesla’s appearance:

Nikola Tesla is almost the tallest, almost the thinnest and certainly the most serious man who goes to Delmonico’s regularly…. He has eyes set very far back in his head. They are rather light. I asked him how he could have such light eyes and be a Slav. He told me that his eyes were once much darker, but that using his mind a great deal had made them many shades lighter. I have often heard it said that using the brain makes the eyes lighter in color. Tesla’s confirmation of the theory through his personal experience is important.He is very thin, is more than six feet tall and weighs less than a hundred and forty pounds. He has very big hands. Many able men do—Lincoln is one instance. His thumbs are remarkably big, even for such big hands. They are extraordinarily big. This is a good sign. The thumb is the intellectual part of the hand. The apes have very small thumbs. Study them and you will notice this.

Nikola Tesla has a head that spreads out at the top like a fan. His head is shaped like a wedge. His chin is as pointed as an ice-pick. His mouth is too small. His chin, though not weak, is not strong enough. His face cannot be studied and judged like the faces of other men, for he is not a worker in practical fields. He lives his life up in the top of his head, where ideas are born, and up there he has plenty of room. His hair is jet black and curly. He stoops—most men do when they have no peacock blood in them. He lives inside of himself. He takes a profound interest in his own work. He has that supply of self-love and self-confidence which usually goes with success. And he differs from most of the men who are written and talked about in the fact that he has something to tell.[178]

Eidetic Memory

Tesla read many works, memorizing complete books, and supposedly possessing a photographic memory.[189] He was a polyglot, speaking eight languages: Serbo-Croatian, Czech, English, French, German, Hungarian, Italian, and Latin.[190] Tesla related in his autobiography that he experienced detailed moments of inspiration. During his early life, Tesla was stricken with illness time and time again. He suffered a peculiar affliction in which blinding flashes of light would appear before his eyes, often accompanied by visions. Often, the visions were linked to a word or idea he might have come across; at other times they would provide the solution to a particular problem he had encountered. Just by hearing the name of an item, he would be able to envision it in realistic detail. Modern-day synesthetes report similar symptoms. Tesla would visualize an invention in his mind with extreme precision, including all dimensions, before moving to the construction stage; a technique sometimes known as picture thinking. He typically did not make drawings by hand but worked from memory. Beginning in his childhood, Tesla had frequent flashbacks to events that had happened previously in his life.[189]

Sleep habits

Tesla claimed to never sleep more than two hours.[191] However, Tesla did admit to “dozing” from time to time “to recharge his batteries.”[177]

During his second year of study at Graz, Tesla developed a passion for (and became very proficient at) billiards, chess and card-playing, sometimes spending more than 48 hours in a stretch at a gaming table.[192][193] On one occasion at his laboratory, Tesla worked for a period of 84 hours without sleep or rest.[194]

Kenneth Swezey, a journalist whom Tesla had befriended, confirmed that Tesla rarely slept. Swezey recalled one morning when Tesla called him at 3 A.M.: “I was sleeping in my room like one dead…. Suddenly, the telephone ring awakened me…. [Tesla] spoke animatedly, with pauses, [as he]…work[ed] out a problem, comparing one theory to another, commenting; and when he felt he had arrived at the solution, he suddenly closed the telephone.”[177]

OCD

Tesla probably suffered from obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) in his later years. He developed a hatred of jewelry and round objects, could not bear to touch hair, did not like to shake hands, and became obsessed with the number three—he often felt compelled to walk around a block three times before entering a building, and demanded 18 napkins (a number divisible by three) to polish his silver and glasses and plates until they were impeccable, whenever he went dining. If he read one of an author’s books, he had to read all of his books.[195] The nature of OCD was little understood at the time and no treatments were available, so his symptoms were considered by some to be evidence of partial insanity, undoubtedly damaging what was left of his reputation.[citation needed]

Relationships

Tesla with an unknown woman

Tesla was celibate and never married, claiming that his chastity was very helpful to his scientific abilities.[189] However, towards the end of his life, he told a reporter, “Sometimes I feel that by not marrying, I made too great a sacrifice to my work….”[196] There have been numerous accounts of women vying for Tesla’s affection, even some madly in love with him.[citation needed] Tesla, though polite and soft-spoken, behaved ambivalently towards these women in the romantic sense.[citation needed]

Tesla was prone to secluding himself.[citation needed] However, when he did engage in a social life, many people spoke very positively and admiringly of Tesla. Robert Underwood Johnson described him as attaining a “distinguished sweetness, sincerity, modesty, refinement, generosity, and force.”[197] His loyal secretary, Dorothy Skerrit, wrote: “his genial smile and nobility of bearing always denoted the gentlemanly characteristics that were so ingrained in his soul.”[198] Tesla’s friend,Julian Hawthorne, wrote, “seldom did one meet a scientist or engineer who was also a poet, a philosopher, an appreciator of fine music, a linguist, and a connoisseur of food and drink.”[citation needed]

Mark Twain in Tesla’s lab, early 1894

Tesla was a good friend of Robert Underwood Johnson,[199] Francis Marion Crawford, Stanford White,[200] Fritz Lowenstein, George Scherff, Kenneth Swezey.[201][202][203] In middle age, Tesla became a close friend of Mark Twain. They spent a lot of time together in his lab and elsewhere.[199] Twain notably described his induction motor invention as “the most valuable patent since the telephone.”[204] In the late 1920s, Tesla befriended George Sylvester Viereck, a poet, writer, mystic,[citation needed], and later, a Nazi propagandist.[205] Though nearly a hermit, Tesla occasionally attended dinner parties held by Viereck and his wife.[citation needed]

Tesla could be harsh at times, openly expressing disgust for overweight people, such as when he fired a secretary because of her weight.[206] He was quick to criticize clothing. On several occasions, Tesla directed a subordinate to go home and change her dress.[189] When Thomas Edison died in 1931, Tesla contributed the only negative opinion to the New York Times, buried in an extensive coverage of Edison’s life:

He had no hobby, cared for no sort of amusement of any kind and lived in utter disregard of the most elementary rules of hygiene  … His method was inefficient in the extreme, for an immense ground had to be covered to get anything at all unless blind chance intervened and, at first, I was almost a sorry witness of his doings, knowing that just a little theory and calculation would have saved him 90 percent of the labor. But he had a veritable contempt for book learning and mathematical knowledge, trusting himself entirely to his inventor’s instinct and practical American sense.[207]

Views on experimental and theoretical physics

Tesla working in his laboratory.

Tesla exhibited a pre-atomic understanding of physics in his writings;[208] he disagreed with the theory of atoms being composed of smaller subatomic particles, stating there was no such thing as an electron creating an electric charge (he believed that if electrons existed at all they were some fourth state of matter or sub-atom that could only exist in an experimental vacuum and that they had nothing to do with electricity)[209][210] Tesla believed that atoms are immutable—they could not change state or be split in any way. He was a believer in the 19th century concept of an all pervasive “ether” that transmitted electrical energy.[211]

Tesla was generally antagonistic towards theories about the conversion of matter into energy.[212] He was also critical of Einstein’s theory of relativity, saying:

I hold that space cannot be curved, for the simple reason that it can have no properties. It might as well be said that God has properties. He has not, but only attributes and these are of our own making. Of properties we can only speak when dealing with matter filling the space. To say that in the presence of large bodies space becomes curved is equivalent to stating that something can act upon nothing. I, for one, refuse to subscribe to such a view.[213]

Tesla claimed to have developed his own physical principle regarding matter and energy that he started working on in 1892[212] and in 1937, at age 81, claimed in a letter to have completed a “dynamic theory of gravity” that “[would] put an end to idle speculations and false conceptions, as that of curved space”.[214] He stated that the theory was “worked out in all details” and that he hoped to soon give it to the world.[215] Further elucidation of his theory was never found in his writings.[216]

Societal views

Bust of Tesla by Ivan Meštrović, 1952, in Zagreb, Croatia and Nikola Tesla monument by Les Drysdale in Niagara Falls, Ontario.

Tesla, like many of his era, became a proponent of an imposed selective breeding version of eugenics. His opinion stemmed from the belief that humans already interfered with the natural “ruthless workings of nature,” rather than from conceptions of a “master race” or inherent superiority of one person over another. His advocacy of it was, however, to push it further. In a 1937 interview, he stated:

… man’s new sense of pity began to interfere with the ruthless workings of nature. The only method compatible with our notions of civilization and the race is to prevent the breeding of the unfit by sterilization and the deliberate guidance of the mating instinct …. The trend of opinion among eugenists is that we must make marriage more difficult. Certainly no one who is not a desirable parent should be permitted to produce progeny. A century from now it will no more occur to a normal person to mate with a person eugenically unfit than to marry a habitual criminal.[217]

In 1926, Tesla commented on the ills of the social subservience of women and the struggle of women toward gender equality, indicated that humanity’s future would be run by “Queen Bees.” He believed that women would become the dominant sex in the future.[218]

Tesla made predictions about the relevant issues of a post-World War I environment in a printed article, “Science and Discovery are the great Forces which will lead to the Consummation of the War” (20 December 1914).[219] Tesla believed that the League of Nations was not a remedy for the times and issues.[citation needed]

Religious views

Tesla was raised as an Orthodox Christian. Later in his life, he did not consider himself to be a “believer in the orthodox sense,” and opposed religious fanaticism.[220] He had a profound respect for both Buddhism andChristianity.[34][220]

In his article, “The Problem of Increasing Human Energy,” published in 1900, Tesla stated:

For ages this idea [that each of us is only part of a whole] has been proclaimed in the consummately wise teachings of religion, probably not alone as a means of insuring peace and harmony among men, but as a deeply founded truth. The Buddhist expresses it in one way, the Christian in another, but both say the same: We are all one.[221]

However, his religious views remain uncertain due to other statements that he made.[222][223]

Literary works

Tesla wrote a number of books and articles for magazines and journals.[224] Among his books are My Inventions: The Autobiography of Nikola Tesla; The Fantastic Inventions of Nikola Tesla, compiled and edited by David Hatcher Childress; and The Tesla Papers.

Many of Tesla’s writings are freely available on the web,[225][226][227] including the article “The Problem of Increasing Human Energy,” published in The Century Magazine in 1900,[228][229] and the article “Experiments With Alternate Currents Of High Potential And High Frequency,” published in his book Inventions, Researches and Writings of Nikola Tesla.[230][231]

Legacy and honors

Tesla on cover of Time Magazine for 20 July 1931.

Nikola Tesla Museum in Belgrade, Serbia.

Nikola Tesla on 100 Serbian dinarbanknote.

Tesla’s legacy has endured in books, films, radio, TV, music, live theater, comics and video games. The lack of recognition received during his own lifetime has cast him as a tragic and inspirational character, well suited to dramatic fiction. The impact of the technologies invented by Tesla is a recurring theme in several types of science fiction.

Plaques and Memorials

Nikola Tesla Corner in New York

  • The Nikola Tesla Memorial Centre in Smiljan opened in 2006. It features a statue of Tesla designed by sculptor Mile Blažević.[241][242]
  • On 7 July 2006, on the corner of Masarykova and Preradovićeva streets in the Lower Town area in Zagreb, the monument of Tesla was unveiled. This monument was designed by Ivan Meštrović in 1952 and was transferred from the Zagreb-basedRuđer Bošković Institute where it had spent previous decades.[243][244]
  • A monument to Tesla was established at Niagara Falls, New York. This monument portraying Tesla reading a set of notes was sculpted by Frano Kršinić. It was presented to the United States by Yugoslavia in 1976 and is an identical copy of the monument standing in front of the University of Belgrade Faculty of Electrical Engineering.
  • A monument of Tesla standing on a portion of an alternator, was established at Queen Victoria Park in Niagara Falls, Ontario, Canada. The monument was officially unveiled on 9 July 2006 on the 150th anniversary of Tesla’s birth. The monument was sponsored by St. George Serbian Church, Niagara Falls, and designed by Les Drysdale of Hamilton, Ontario.[245][246] Drysdale’s design was the winning design from an international competition.[247]
  • In 2012, Jane Alcorn, president of the nonprofit group The Tesla Science Center at Wardenclyffe, and Matthew Inman, creator of web cartoon The Oatmeal, raised a total of $2,220,511—$1,370,511 from a campaign and $850,000 from a New York State grant—to buy the property where Wardenclyffe Tower once stood and eventually turn it into a museum.[248][249] The Long Island property was purchased from the Agfa Corporation in October 2012.[250]
  • A commemorative plaque honoring Nikola Tesla was installed on the façade of the New Yorker Hotel by the IEEE.[251]

Gallery

References

Notes

  1. ^ a b Jonnes 2004, p. 355
  2. ^ “Electrical pioneer Tesla honoured”. Tesla was equally proud of his Serb origins and Croatian homeland (BBC NEWS). Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  3. ^ “Tesla Village”. Tesla said: ” I am equally proud of my Serbian origin and my Croatian fatherland.”. Tesla Memorial Society of NY. Retrieved 10 July 2012.
  4. ^ “Tesla Timeline”. July, 30th: Tesla’s American Citizenship Tesla becomes an American citizen. He often told friends that he valued this citizenship more than any scientific honors he’d received.. Tesla Universe. Retrieved 11 July 2012.
  5. ^ Phillip A. Laplante, Comprehensive Dictionary of Electrical Engineering 1999, page 635
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  133. ^ See U.S. Blows Up Tesla Radio Tower (1917) (citing page 293 of the September 1917 issue of The Electrical Experimenter): “SUSPECTING that German spies were using the big wireless tower erected at Shoreham, L. I., about twenty years ago by Nikola Tesla, the Federal Government ordered the tower destroyed and it was recently demolished with dynamite.”
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  232. ^ “Nikola Tesla | 20 July 1931”. TIME. Retrieved 2 July 2012.
  233. ^ “Time front cover, Vol XVIII, No. 3, 20 July 1931”. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
  234. ^ Seifer 2001, p. 464
  235. ^ a b Schmadel, Lutz D. (2003). Dictionary of minor planet names. Springer. p. 183. ISBN 3-540-00238-3. Retrieved 28 November 2010.
  236. ^ “Why the Name “Tesla?””. Tesla Motors. Archived from the original on 16 October 2007. Retrieved 10 June 2008.
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  238. ^ Vujovic, Dr. Ljubo. “Tesla Biography NIKOLA TESLA THE GENIUS WHO LIT THE WORLD”. Tesla Memorial Society of New York. Retrieved 30 April 2012.
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  242. ^ “Memorijalni centar “Nikola Tesla” u Smiljanu” (in Croatian).Gospic.hr. City of Gospić. Retrieved 27 May 2011.[dead link]
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  246. ^ “Niagara Falls”. Tesla Memorial Society of NY. Retrieved 3 July 2012.
  247. ^ “Tesla Honored With Niagara Falls Momument”. IEEE Canada. Retrieved 4 July 2012.
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  253. ^ http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/objects/electricity_supply/1927-157.aspx

 

 


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Wu Xing-Five Elements

File:Wuxing en.svg

Diagram of the interactions between the Wu Xing. The generation cycle is illustrated by black arrows running clockwise on the outside of the circle, while lines of conquest are represented by white arrows inside the circle.

Wu Xing
Chinese 五行
[show]Transcriptions
This article contains Chinesetext. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Chinese characters.
[show]
Part of a series on
TaoismYin yang.svg
[hide]

Babylonian

Earth
Sea Fire Sky
Wind

Greek

Air
Water Aether Fire
Earth

Hinduism (Tattva)
Buddhism (Mahābhūta)
Jainism (Tattva)

Vayu
Ap Akasha Agni
Prithvi

Chinese (Wuxing)

Wood (木)
Water (水) Fire (火)
Metal (金) Earth (土)

Japanese (Godai)

Air (風)
Water (水) Void (空) Fire (火)
Earth (地)

Tibetan (Bön)

Air
Water Aether Fire
Earth

Medieval Alchemy

Air (🜁)
Water (🜄) Aether (🜀) Fire (🜂)
Earth (🜃)
Sulphur (🜍) Mercury Salt (🜔)

The Wu Xing, (五行 wŭ xíng) also known as the Five Elements, Five Phases, the Five Agents, the Five Movements, Five Processes, and the Five Steps/Stages, is a fivefold conceptual scheme that many traditional Chinese fields used to explain a wide array of phenomena, from cosmic cycles to the interaction between internal organs, and from the succession of political regimes to the properties of medicinal drugs. The “Five Phases” are Wood (木 mù), Fire (火 huǒ), Earth (土 tǔ),Metal (金 jīn), and Water (水 shuǐ). This order of presentation is known as the “mutual generation” (xiangsheng 相生) sequence. In the order of “mutual conquest” (xiangsheng 相勝) or “mutual overcoming” (xiangke 相剋), they are Wood, Earth, Water, Fire, and Metal.

“Wu Xing” is often translated as Five Elements and this is used extensively by many including practitioners of Five Element acupuncture. This translation arose by false analogy with the Western system of the four elements.[1] Whereas the classical Greek elements were concerned with substances or natural qualities, the Chinese xing are “primarily concerned with process and change,” hence the common translation as “phases” or “agents.”[2] By the same token, Mu is thought of as “Tree” rather than “Wood”.[3] The words Element is thus used within the context of Chinese medicine with a different meaning to its usual meaning. Evolution of language in this way is not without precedence. It should be recognized that the word Phase although commonly preferred may be better, but is not perfect. Phase is a better translation for the five ‘seasons'(五運 wŭ yùn) mentioned below, and so Agents or Processes might be preferred for the primary term Xing. Manfred Porkert attempts to resolve this by using ‘Evolutive Phase’ for Wu Xing (五行 wŭ xíng) and ‘Circuit Phase’ for Wu Yun (五運 wŭ yùn), but these have the drawback of being unwieldy terms. In some ways arguing for one one term over another is a flawed argument because any single word is probably inadequate for translation of what is a concept.

Some of the Mawangdui Silk Texts (no later than 168 BC) also present the Wu Xing as “five virtues” or types of activities.[4] Within Chinese medicine texts the Wu Xing are also referred to as Wu Yun (五運 wŭ yùn) or a combination of the two characters (Wu Xing-Yun) these emphasise the correspondence of five elements to five ‘seasons’ (four seasons plus one). Another tradition refers to the wu xing as wu de 五德, the Five Virtues (zh:五德終始說).

The system of five phases was used for describing interactions and relationships between phenomena. After it came to maturity in the second or first century BCE during the Han dynasty, this device was employed in many fields of early Chinese thought, including seemingly disparate fields such as geomancy or Feng shui, astrology, traditional Chinese medicine, music, military strategy and martial arts. The system is still used as a reference in some forms of complementary and alternative medicine and martial arts.

Contents

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[edit]Cycles

The doctrine of five phases describes two cycles, a generating or creation (生, shēng) cycle, also known as “mother-son”, and an overcoming or destruction (剋/克, kè) cycle, also known as “grandfather-nephew”, of interactions between the phases.

[edit]Generating

The five elements are usually used to describe the state in nature:

  • Wood/Spring: a period of growth, which generates abundant wood and vitality
  • Fire/Summer: a period of swellness, which overbrews with fire and energy
  • Metal/Autumn: a period of fruition, which produces formation and bears fruit
  • Water/Winter: a period of retreat, where stillness pervades
  • Earth: the in-between transitional seasonal periods

The common memory jogs, which help to remind in what order the phases are:

  • Wood feeds Fire
  • Fire creates Earth (ash)
  • Earth bears Metal
  • Metal carries Water (as in a bucket or tap, or water condenses on metal)
  • Water nourishes Wood

Other common words for this cycle include “begets”, “engenders” and “mothers.”

[edit]Overcoming

  • Wood parts Earth (such as roots; or, Trees can prevent soil erosion)
  • Earth dams (or muddies or absorbs) Water
  • Water extinguishes Fire
  • Fire melts Metal
  • Metal chops Wood

This cycle might also be called “controls”, “restrains” or “fathers”.

[edit]Cosmology and feng shui

Another illustration of the cycle.

Main article: Feng shui

According to Wu Xing theory, the structure of the cosmos mirrors the five phases. Each phase has a complex series of associations with different aspects of nature, as can be seen in the following table. In the ancient Chinese form of geomancyknown as Feng Shui practitioners all based their art and system on the five phases (Wu Xing). All of these phases are represented within the Ba gua. Associated with these phases are colors, seasons and shapes; all of which are interacting with each other.[5]

Based on a particular directional energy flow from one phase to the next, the interaction can be expansive, destructive, or exhaustive. With proper knowledge of such aspect of energy flow will enable the Feng Shui practitioner to apply certain cures or rearrangement of energy in a way they believe to be beneficial for the receiver of the Feng Shui “Treatment”.

Element Wood Fire Earth Metal Water
Material Wind, Moisture, Air, Minerals, Mana, Ink,Mind, Rubber, Paper, Plants, Poison, Wax,Dissolve, Carbon, Clouds, Health, Space Heat, Light, Lava, Radiation, Sparks,Plasma, Explosions, Burn, Blaze, Oil,Ash, Smoke, Glass, Napalm, Sun,Matter Clay, Rock, Dust, Sand, Mud, Crystal,Powder, Shadow, Space, Darkness,Gravity, Bone, Quake[disambiguation needed],Silicon Lightning, Magnetism, Electric, Rust, Gold, Silver,Steel, Iron, Platinum, Titanium, Copper, Bronze,Brass, Blood, Forge, Stars, Diamond, Energy Sea, Ice, Storms, Rain, Steam, Fluid, Sound,Mist, Acid, Slime[disambiguation needed], Salt,Time, Pressure, Moon, Mirror, Snow, Frost,Sugar
Color Green Red Yellow White Black
Shape Rectangular Triangle Square Round Curve
Cardinal direction East South Center West North
Planet Jupiter Mars Saturn Venus Mercury
Heavenly creature Azure Dragon
青龍		 Vermilion Bird
朱雀		 Yellow Dragon 黃龍 / Qilin 麒麟 White Tiger
白虎		 Black Tortoise
玄武
Heavenly Stems 甲, 乙 丙, 丁 戊, 己 庚, 辛 壬, 癸
Phase New Yang Full Yang Yin/Yang balance New Yin Full Yin
Direction and Natural phenomena Expansive and exterior (in all directions) Ascending Stabilizing (representing harmony) Contracting and interior Descending
Season Spring Summer Change of seasons
(Every third month)[citation needed]		 Autumn Winter
Climate Windy[citation needed] Hot Damp[citation needed] Dry[citation needed] Cold[citation needed]
Development Sprouting Blooming[citation needed] Ripening[citation needed] Withering Dormant[citation needed]

[edit]Ba gua

Main article: Ba gua

The movements have also been correlated to the eight trigrams of the I Ching:

Movement Metal Earth Wood Wood Water Fire Earth Metal
I Ching Heaven Earth Thunder Wind Water Fire Mountain Lake
Trigrams ☰ ☷ ☳ ☴ ☵ ☲ ☶ ☱
Trigram hanzi 乾 坤 震 巽 坎 離 艮 兌
Trigram pinyin qián kūn zhèn xùn kǎn lí gèn duì

[edit]Chinese medicine

Five Chinese Elements – Diurnal Cycle

The interdependence of Zang Fu networks in the body was noted to be a circle of five things, and so mapped by the Chinese doctors onto the five phases.[citation needed] For instance, the Liver (Wood phase) is said to be the “mother” of the heart (Fire phase), and the Kidneys (Water phase) the mother of the Liver. The key observation was things like kidney deficiency affecting the function of the liver. In this case, the “mother” is weak, and cannot support the child. However, the Kidneys control the heart along the Ke cycle, so the Kidneys are said to restrain the heart. Many of these interactions can nowadays be linked to Western physiological pathways (such as Kidney pH affecting heart activity).[clarification needed]

The key thing to keep in mind with the Chinese medical application of the five elements is that it is only a model, and it is known to have exceptions.

The citation order of the Five Phases, i.e., the order in which they are cited in the Bo hu tong 白虎通 and other Han dynasty texts, is Metal, Wood, Water, Fire, and Earth. The organs are most effectively treated, according to theory, in the following four-hour periods throughout the day, beginning with the 3 a.m. to 7 a. m. period: Metal organs (see the list below), Earth organs, Fire1 organs, Water organs, Fire2 (the “non-empirical” Pericardium and Triple Burner organs), and Wood organs, which is the reverse of the citation order (plus an extra use of Fire and the non-empirical organs to take care of the sixth four-hour period of the day). These two orders are further related to the sequence of the planets going outward from the sun (Mercury, Venus, Mars, Jupiter, Saturn, or Water, Metal, Fire, Wood, and Earth) by a star diagram similar to the one shown above.[6]

The sequence of the five elements (Traditional Chinese medicine)：promotion, inhibition, Cheng (bullying), Wu (insult).[7]

Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal Water
Planet Jupiter Mars Saturn Venus Mercury
Mental Quality Sensitivity Creativity Clarity Intuition Spontaneity
Emotion anger happiness love grief, sadness fear, scare
Zang (yin organs) liver heart/pericardium spleen/pancreas lung kidney
Fu (yang organs) gall bladder small intestine/San Jiao stomach large intestine urinary bladder
Sensory organ eyes tongue mouth nose ears
Body Part Tendons Pulse Muscle Skin Bones
Body Fluid Tears Sweat Saliva Mucus Urine
Finger index finger middle finger thumb ring finger little finger
Sense sight speech taste smell hearing
Taste[8] sour bitter sweet pungent salt
Smell Rancid Scorched Fragrant Rotten[disambiguation needed] Putrid
Life birth youth adulthood old age death
Animal scaly feathered human furred shelled

[edit]Celestial stem

Main article: Celestial stem
Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal Water
Heavenly Stem Jia 甲
Yi 乙		 Bing 丙
Ding 丁		 Wu 戊
Ji 己		 Geng 庚
Xin 辛		 Ren 壬
Gui 癸
Year ends with 4, 5 6, 7 8, 9 0, 1 2, 3

[edit]Music

Main articles: Chinese music and Chinese musicology

The Yuèlìng chapter (月令篇) of the Lǐjì (禮記) and the Huáinánzǐ (淮南子) make the following correlations:

Movement Wood Fire Earth Metal Water
Colour Green or Blue Red Yellow White Black
Direction east south center west north
Basic Pentatonic Scale pitch 角 徵 宮 商 羽
Basic Pentatonic Scale pitch pinyin jué zhǐ gōng shāng yǔ
solfege mi sol do re la
  • The Chinese word 青 qīng, has many meanings, including green, azure, cyan, and black. It refers to green in Wu Xing.
  • In most modern music, various seven note or five note scales (e.g., the major scale) are defined by selecting seven or five frequencies from the set of twelve semi-tones in the Equal tempered tuning. The Chinese “lǜ” tuning is closest to the ancient Greek tuning of Pythagoras.

[edit]Martial arts

T’ai chi ch’uan uses the five elements to designate different directions, positions or footwork patterns. Either forward, backward, left, right and centre, or three steps forward (attack) and two steps back (retreat).[9]

The Five Steps (五步 wǔ bù):

  • Jìn bù (進步) Forward step
  • Tùi bù (退步) Backward step
  • Zǔo gù (左顧, in simplified characters 左顾) ) Left step
  • Yòu pàn (右盼 ) Right step
  • Zhōng dìng (中定) Central position, balance, equilibrium.

Xingyiquan uses the five elements metaphorically to represent five different states of combat.

Movement Fist Chinese Pinyin Description
Metal Splitting 劈 Pī To split like an axe chopping up and over.
Water Drilling 鑽 Zuān Drilling forward horizontally like a geyser.
Wood Crushing 崩 Bēng To collapse, as a building collapsing in on itself.
Fire Pounding 炮 Pào Exploding outward like a cannon while blocking.
Earth Crossing 橫 Héng Crossing across the line of attack while turning over.

[edit]Tea ceremony

There are spring, summer, fall, and winter teas. The perennial tea ceremony (“perennial”, literally means four steps or sequences that are linked together, each representing a season of the year) includes four tea settings(茶席) and a tea master(司茶). The tea settings are:

  • earth, center incense, yellow, up and down
  • wood, 春風(Spring Wind), green, east
  • fire, 夏露(Summer Dew), red, south
  • metal, 秋籟(Fall Sounds), white, west
  • water, 冬陽(Winter Sunshine) black, north

Each tea setting is arranged and stands for the four directions (north, south, east, and west). A vase of the seasons’ flowers is put on tea table. Sometimes if four tea masters are included then five chairs are arranged per tea setting, making a total of twenty plus the 4 tea masters equalling 24, which symbolizes the 24 solar terms of the Chinese calendar, and represents that nature continues or is perennial.

[edit]See also

Tablet, in Chinese and Manchu, for the gods of the five elements in the Temple of Heaven

[edit]Bibliography

  • Feng Youlan (Yu-lan Fung), A History of Chinese Philosophy, volume 2, p. 13
  • Joseph Needham, Science and Civilization in China, volume 2, pp. 262–23
  • Maciocia, G. 2005, The Foundations of Chinese Medicine, 2nd edn, Elsevier Ltd., London

[edit]References

  1. ^ Nathan Sivin (1995), “Science and Medicine in Chinese History,” in his Science in Ancient China (Aldershot, England: Variorum), text VI, p. 179.
  2. ^ Nathan Sivin (1987), Traditional Medicine in Contemporary China (Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan) p. 73.
  3. ^ ‹The template Cite video is being considered for deletion.›  千古中医之张仲景. Wood and Metal were often replaced with air. Lecture Room, CCTV-10.
  4. ^ Nathan Sivin (1987), Traditional Medicine in Contemporary China, p. 72.
  5. ^ Chinese Five Elements Chart Information on the Chinese Five Elements from Northern Shaolin Academy in Microsoft Excel 2003 Format
  6. ^ See 5 Xing in Citation Order.
  7. ^ promotion inhibition Cheng wu
  8. ^ Eberhard, Wolfram (December 1965). “Chinese Regional Stereotypes”. Asian Survey (University of California Press) 5 (12): 596–608. JSTOR 2642652.
  9. ^ Wu, Kung-tsao (1980, 2006). Wu Family T’ai Chi Ch’uan (吳家太極拳). Chien-ch’uan T’ai-chi Ch’uan Association. ISBN 0-9780499-0-X.

 

 
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Hapkido- Matial Art.

Hapkido
Hapkido-hangul.svg
File:Hapkido5.jpg
Hapkido tournament in Korea.
Also known as Hap Ki Do, Hapki-Do
Focus Eclectic and Hybrid
Country of origin  South Korea
Creator Choi Yong-Sool
Famous practitioners Chinil Chang,
Lim Hyun Soo,
Kim Yoon-Sang,
Ji Han-Jae,
Myung Kwang-Sik,
Han Bong-soo,
Chung Kee Tae,
Myung Jae-Nam,
Hwang In-Shik,
Oh Se-Lim
Parenthood Korean martial arts
Ancestor arts mainly Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu, Judoand Tang Soo Do.
Descendant arts Sin Moo Hapkido,
Hankido,
Han Mu Do,
Kuk Sool Won,
Hwa Rang Do,
Tactical (Chon Sul Kwan) Hapkido
Chon-Tu Kwan Hapkido
Olympic sport (Possibly in 2016 or 2022)
Hapkido
Hangul 합기도
Hanja 合氣道
Revised Romanization Hapgido
McCune–Reischauer Hapkido
This article contains Koreantext. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Hangul or Hanja.

Hapkido (also spelled hap ki do or hapki-do; Hangul: 합기도; Hanja: 合氣道) is a dynamic and also eclectic Korean martial art. It is a form of self-defense that employs joint locks, techniques of other martial arts, as well as kicks, punches, and other striking attacks. There is also the use of traditional weapons, including a sword, rope, nunchaku, cane, short stick, and staff (gun, bō) which vary in emphasis depending on the particular tradition examined.

Hapkido contains both long and close range fighting techniques, utilizing jumping kicks and percussive hand strikes at longer ranges and pressure point strikes, joint locks, or throws at closer fighting distances. Hapkido emphasizes circular motion, non-resisting movements, and control of the opponent. Practitioners seek to gain advantage through footwork and body positioning to incorporate the use of leverage, avoiding the use of strength against strength.

The art copied from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu (大東流合気柔術) or a closely related jujutsu system taught by Choi Yong-Sool (Hangul: 최용술) who returned to Korea after World War II, having lived in Japan for 30 years. This system was later combined with kicking and striking techniques of indigenous and contemporary arts such as taekkyeon and tang soo do. Its history is obscured by the historical animosity between the Korean and Japanese people following the Second World War.[1][2][3][4]

Contents

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[edit]Name

Hapkido is rendered “합기도” in the native Korean writing system known as hangul, the script used most widely in modern Korea. The art’s name can also however be written “合氣道” utilizing the same traditional Chinese characters which would have been used to refer to the Japanese martial art of aikido in the pre-1946 period. The current preference in Japan is for the use of a modern simplified second character; substituting 気 for the earlier, more complex character 氣.

The character 合 hap means “coordinated” or “joining”; 氣 ki describes internal energy, spirit, strength, or power; and 道 do means “way” or “art”, yielding a literal translation of “joining-energy-way”. It is most often translated as “the way of coordinating energy”, “the way of coordinated power” or “the way of harmony”.

Although aikido and hapkido are believed by many to share a common history, they remain separate and distinct from one another. They differ significantly in philosophy, range of responses and manner of executing techniques. The fact that they share the same original Chinese characters, despite 合 being pronounced “ai” in Japanese and “hap” in Korean, has proved problematic in promoting the art internationally as a discipline with its own set of unique characteristics differing from those of the Japanese art.[citation needed]

[edit]History and major figures from Korea

The birth of modern hapkido can be traced to the efforts of a group of Korean nationals in the post Japanese colonial period of Korea, Choi Yong-Sool (1899–1986) and his most prominent students; Seo Bok-Seob, the first student of the art;Ji Han-Jae (born 1936), one of the earliest promoters of the art; Kim Moo-Hong, a major innovator; Myung Jae-Nam, a connector between the art of hapkido and aikido, Myung Kwang-Sik the historian and ambassador, all of whom were direct students of Choi or of his immediate students.[5][6]

[edit]Choi Yong-Sool

Main article: Choi Yong-Sool

Choi Yong-Sool (Hangul: 최용술)’s training in martial arts is a subject of contention. It is known that Choi was sent to Japan as a young boy and returned to Korea with techniques characteristic of Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu (大東流合気柔術), a forerunner of aikido. The next portion of the story is quite controversial in Daitō-ryū circles but is claimed by many contemporary hapkido-ists and is attributed to Choi in an interview (released posthumously) that took place during a trip Choi made to the United States in 1980 to visit his second direct lineage successor Chinil Chang in New York City.[7]

In the interview with second direct lineage Doju Chinil Chang, Choi claims to have been adopted by Takeda Sōkaku when he was 11 years old and was given the Japanese name, Yoshida Asao. He claims to have been taken to Takeda’s home and dojo in Akita on Shin Shu mountain where he lived and trained with the master for 30 years. The interview also asserts that he travelled with him as a teaching assistant, that he was employed to catch war deserters and that he was the only student to have a complete understanding of the system taught by Takeda.[7]

This is contradicted by other claims asserting that Choi was simply a worker in the home of Takeda. In fact, the meticulous enrollment and fee records of Tokimune Takeda, Takeda Sokaku’s eldest son and Daitō-ryū’s successor, do not seem to include Choi’s name among them. Therefore, except for claims made by Choi himself, there is little evidence that Choi was the adopted son of Takeda Sokaku, or that he ever formally studied Daitō-ryū under the founder of the art.[8]

Retouched photograph of Takeda Sōkaku circa 1888

Stanley Pranin, then of Aiki News and now editor of the Aikidojournal.com, asked Kisshomaru Ueshiba about Choi Yong-Sool and hapkido:

“ On another subject, it is true that a Korean named “Choi” who founded hapkido studied aikido or Daito-ryu?I don’t know what art it was but I understand that there was a young Korean of about 17 or 18 who participated in a seminar of Sokaku Takeda Sensei held in Asahikawa City in Hokkaidō. It seems that he studied the art together with my father and would refer to him as his “senior”.

If that’s the case the art must have been Daito-ryu.

I’ve heard that this man who studied Daito-ryu had some contact with my father after that. Then he returned to Korea and began teaching Daito-ryu on a modest scale. The art gradually became popular and many Koreans trained with him. Since aikido became popular in Japan he called his art hapkido [written in Korean with the same characters as aikido]. Then the art split into many schools before anyone realized it. This is what my father told me. I once received a letter from this teacher after my father’s death.[9]

 ”

Some argue that Choi Yong-Sool’s potential omission from the records, and the ensuing debate over hapkido’s origins, may be due to tensions between Koreans and Japanese, partly as a result of the Japanese occupation of Korea. At the height of dispute, it is claimed by hapkido practitioners that Koreans were excluded from listing, though this is contradicted by Takeda’s records which contain other Korean names. While some commentators claim hapkido has a Japanese lineage, others state that its origins lay with indigenous Korean martial arts.

Choi Yong-Sool’s first student, and the man whom some claim helped him develop the art of hapkido was Seo Bok-Seob, a Korean judo black belt when they met. Some of Choi’s other respected senior students are: Chinil Chang, Ji Han-Jae, Kim Moo-Hong, and arguably Seo In-Hyuk (Hangul: 서인혁) and Lee Joo-Bang (Hangul: 이주방) who went on to form the arts of Kuk Sool Won and modern Hwa Rang Do respectively (though some argue that their training stems from time spent training under Kim Moo-Hong).

[edit]Seo Bok-Seob

Main article: Seo Bok-Seob

Choi’s first student and the first person known to have opened up a dojang under Choi was Seo Bok-Seob (also spelled Suh Bok-Sup; Hangul: 서복섭).[5]

In 1948, when Seo Bok-sub was still in his early 20s, he had already earned his black belt in judo and was a graduate of Korea University. After watching Choi Yong-Sool successfully defend himself against a group of men when an argument erupted in the yard of the Seo Brewery Company, Seo who was son of the chairman of the company, invited Choi to begin teaching martial arts to him and some workers at the distillery where he had prepared a dojang.[10]

In 1951, Seo opened up the first proper dojang called the “Daehan Hapki Yu Kwon Sool Dojang (Hangul: 대한 합기 유권술 도장)”. The first symbol, designed by Seo, which was used to denote the art was the inverted arrowhead design featured in both the modern incarnation of the KiDo Association and by Myung Kwang-Sik’s World Hapkido Federation. Choi Yong-Sool was also employed during this time as a bodyguard to Seo’s father who was a congressman. Seo and Choi agreed to shorten the name of the art from ‘hapki yu kwon sool’ to ‘hapkido’ in 1959.[11]

[edit]Chinil Chang

A direct student of Doju Choi, Chinil Chang inherited the title of Doju in Choi’s personal and complete system of Hapkido on January 15, 1985 becoming the second direct lineage Grandmaster.

On April 5th, 1985 Doju Choi awarded Doju Chang the only existing 10th Dan certificate in Hapkido history.

A large inauguration ceremony followed on April 11, 1985 covered by Korea Sports News and MBC Korean Television to document the historic event that was attended by Doju Choi, Doju Chang and Doju Choi’s son the late Choi Bok-Yeol. Doju Chang is the only Hapkido master ever awarded the 10th dan and the Doju title directly from Doju Choi. Doju Choi left the full documents and recordings of the system to Doju Chang who continued to research and document the full history and development of Hapkido.

Furthermore, the future Grandmaster, who was a personally trained, closed-door disciple of Doju Choi, was given Letter Of Appointment certificates, the second dated December 1, 1977 and the third dated March 5, 1980, that gave Doju Chang more progressive power and authority in Doju Choi’s Hapkido Association. These specific certificates that were issued in addition to his Dan ranking certifications amply demonstrate that Doju Choi was clearly grooming Doju Chang for the future Grandmaster and 10th dan appointment that was to come in 1985.

Grandmaster Chang continues to teach in New York City after decades of maintaining a commercial school as well as a stint teaching Hapkido at the United Nations. He currently teaches a small group dedicated to the preservation of Hapkido in NYC. Many detractors have spread conjecture about him and his mission. One lineage has created further controversy by stating Doju Choi passed the system to his only son Choi Bok-Yeol which is incorrect and horribly misleading as well as insulting to the legacy and wishes of Doju Choi. Black Belt Magazine respecting Doju Chinil Chang as the second lineage successor asked him to write a brief obituary on Doju Choi that appeared in Black Belt magazine in the April 1987 issue Vol 25 Number 4.

[edit]Ji Han-Jae

Main article: Ji Han-Jae

Ji Han-Jae (Hangul: 지한재) was undoubtedly the prime mover in the art of Korean hapkido. It is due to his physical skills, technical contributions, promotional efforts and political connections as head hapkido instructor to the presidential body guard under Korean President Park Jeong-Hee(Hangul: 박정희) that hapkido became popularized, first within Korea and then internationally.

If the martial art education of Choi Yong-Sool is unconfirmed, the same must be said for martial art history of Ji Han-Jae’s training, apart from his time as a student of Choi. Ji was an early student (Dan #14) of Choi. He details that prior to opening his martial art school in Seoul, the Sung Moo Kwan (Hangul: 성무관), he also supposedlly studied from a man known as ‘Taoist Lee’ and an old woman he knew as ‘Grandma’.[5][12]

As a teacher of hapkido, Ji incorporated traditional Korean kicking techniques (from Taoist Lee and the art Sam Rang Do Tek Gi) and punching techniques into the system and gave the resulting synthesis the name hapkido in 1957. Hapkido is the Korean pronunciation of (Japanese) aikido and is sometimes erroneously referred to as its Korean cousin.

Although a founding member of the Dae Han Ki Do Hwe (Korea Kido Association) in 1963 with Choi Yong-Sool as titular Chairman and Kim Jeong-Yoon as Secretary General and Head Instructor for the association Ji found himself not able to exert as much control over the organization as he might have wished. To this end and with the support of the Head of the Security Forces, Park Jong-Kyu, Ji founded the very successful Korea Hapkido Association (Dae Han Hapkido Hyub Hwe; Hangul: 대한 합기도 협회) in 1965.[10]

Later when this organization combined with the organizations founded by Myung Jae-Nam (Korea Hapki Association/Hangook Hapki Hwe; Hangul: 한국 합기회) and Kim Moo-Hong (Korean Hapkido Association/Hangook Hapkido Hyub Hwe; Hangul: 한국 합기도 협회) in 1973 they became the very extensive and influential organization known as the Republic of Korea Hapkido Association (Dae Han Min Gook Hapkido Hyub Hwe; Hangul: 대한민국 합기도 협회).

In 1984, Ji moved first to Germany and then to the United States and founded Sin Moo Hapkido (Hangul: 신무 합기도), which incorporates philosophical tenets, a specific series of techniques (including kicks) and healing techniques into the art. Two of Ji Han-Jae’s notable students in Korea were Kwon Tae-Man (Hangul: 권태만), Myung Jae-Nam (Hangul: 명재남). Ji can be seen in the films Lady Kung-fu and Game of Death in which he takes part in a long fight scene against Bruce Lee.

After the death of Choi Yong-Sool in 1986, Ji came forward with the assertion that it was he who founded the Korean art of hapkido, asserting that Choi Yong-Sool taught only yawara based skills and that it was he who added much of the kicking, and weapon techniques we now associate with modern hapkido.[13] He also asserts that it was he that first used the term ‘hapkido’ to refer to the art. While both claims are contested by some of the other senior teachers of the art,[14] what is not contested is the undeniably huge contributions made by Ji to the art, its systematization and its promotion world wide.

[edit]Kim Moo-Hong

Main article: Kim Moo-Hong

(alternately rendered as Kim Moo-Woong or Kim Mu-Hyun)

A student from the Choi and Seo’s Daehan Hapki Yu Kwon Sool Dojang, was Kim Moo-Hong (Hangul: 김무홍),[5] who later taught at Seo’s Joong Ang dojang (Hangul: 중앙 도장) in Daegu. Seo, who promoted Kim to 4th degree, credits Kim with the development of many kicks which are still used in hapkido today. Kim apparentally took the concepts from very basic kicks he had learned from Choi and went to a temple to work on developing them to a much greater degree. Later, in 1961, Kim travelled to Seoul and while staying at Ji Han-Jae’s Sung Moo Kwan dojang they finalized the kicking curriculum.[10]

Kim went on to found his Shin Moo Kwan dojang (Hangul: 신무관 도장) in the Jongmyo section of Seoul, also in 1961. Won Kwang-Hwa (Hangul: 원광화) also served as an instructor at this dojang. Kim’s notable students were Lee Han-Cheol (Hangul: 이한철), Kim Woo-Tak (Hangul: 김우탁; who founded the Kuk Sool Kwan Hapkido dojang), Huh Il-Woong (Hangul: 허일웅), Lee Joo-Bang (Hangul: 이주방; who founded modern Hwa Rang Do), Na Han-Dong (Hangul: 나한동), Shin Dong-Ki (Hangul: 신동기) and Seo In-Hyuk (Hangul: 서인혁; who founded Kuk Sool Won).[10]

Originally a member of the Korea Kido Association, the organization sent Kim to teach hapkido in the United States in 1969. Upon returning to Korea in 1970, Kim looked to Ji Han-Jae’s move to set up his own organization and with the encouragement of his students followed suit and founded the Korean Hapkido Association (Hangook Hapkido Association) in 1971. Later he combined this organization with the groups led by Ji Han-Jae and Myung Jae-Nam to form the Republic of Korea Hapkido Association.[10]

[edit]Myung Jae-Nam

Main article: Myung Jae-Nam

In 1972, Myung Jae-Nam (Hangul: 명재남) was one of the original members of the Korea Hapkido Association (Dae Han Hapkido Hyub Hwe; Hangul: 대한 합기도 협회), which was formed in 1965 at the request of the South Korean President Park Jeong-Hee. The Korea Hapkido Association was formed with the assistance of Mr. Park Jong Kyu, who was the head of the Presidential Protective Forces and one of the most powerful men in Korea at the time.[10]

Later Myung Jae-Nam broke away from all the other organizations and started to focus on promoting a new style, hankido. Until his death in 1999 he was the leader of the International Hapkido Federation.

[edit]Lim, Hyun Soo

Lim, Hyun Soo is a long time disciple of Dojunim, Choi Yong Sul. Lim created the Jung Ki Kwan on October 24, 1974. In 1965 he visited Founder Choi, Yong Sul and had his first meeting with Hapkido. At first he was taught by Master Kim, Yeung Jae, Founder Choi’s pupil. He was then taught by Founder Choi, Yong Sul and became his pupil in 1981. During his time with the founder, he endured strict and intense training. Knowing Hapkido’s true value and meaning during his special training period with the founder, he opened the Jung Ki Kwan. In 1976 Founder Choi closed his place, joined the Jung Ki Kwan, and devoted his energy to it for the rest of his life. Grand Master Lim continues to teach Choi, Yong Sul’s style of original Hapkido to this day. His dojang is in Daegu City, South Korea. Grand Master Lim is also a top swordsman in Korea and created a sword system known as Chung Suk Kuhapdo. Grand Master Lim’s Jung Ki Kwan is an international organization that is committed to teaching Hapkido as taught to Grand Master Lim from Dojunim Choi, Yong Sul.

[edit]Principles

On the “hard-soft” scale of martial arts, hapkido stands somewhere in the middle, employing “soft” techniques similar to jujutsu and aikido as well as “hard” techniques reminiscent of taekwondo and tang soo do. Even the “hard” techniques, though, emphasize circular rather than linear movements. Hapkido is an eclectic, hybrid martial art, and different hapkido schools emphasize different techniques. However, some core techniques are found in each school (kwan), and all techniques should follow the three principles of hapkido:

  • Nonresistance (“Hwa”, 화 or 和) → (화 Hwa 和 Harmony)
  • Circle principle (“Won”, 원 or 圓) → (원 Weon 圓 Circle)
  • The Water/Flexible principle (“Yu”, 유 or 柳) → (유 Yu 流 Flow)

Hwa, or non-resistance, is simply the act of remaining relaxed and not directly opposing an opponent’s strength. For example, if an opponent were to push against a hapkido student’s chest, rather than resist and push back, the hapkido student would avoid a direct confrontation by moving in the same direction as the push and utilizing the opponent’s forward momentum to throw him.

Won, the circular principle, is a way to gain momentum for executing the techniques in a natural and free-flowing manner. If an opponent attacks in linear motion, as in a punch or knife thrust, the hapkido student would redirect the opponent’s force by leading the attack in a circular pattern, thereby adding the attacker’s power to his own. Once he has redirected the power, the hapkido student can execute any of a variety of techniques to incapacitate his attacker. The hapkido practitioner learns to view an attacker as an “energy entity” rather than as a physical entity. The bigger the person is, the more energy a person has, the better it is for the hapkido student.

Yu, the water principle, can be thought of as the soft, adaptable strength of water. Hapkido is “soft” in that it does not rely on physical force alone, much like water is soft to touch. It is adaptable in that a hapkido master will attempt to deflect an opponent’s strike, in a way that is similar to free-flowing water being divided around a stone only to return and envelop it.

[edit]Techniques

Hapkido seeks to be a fully comprehensive fighting style and as such tries to avoid narrow specialization in any particular type of technique or range of fighting. It maintains a wide range of tactics for striking, standing joint locks, throwing techniques (both pure and joint manipulating throws) and pinning techniques. Some styles also incorporate tactics for ground fighting although these tactics generally tend to be focused upon escaping and regaining footing or controlling, striking, and finishing a downed opponent, rather than lengthy wrestling or submission grapplingengagements.

The Korean term for technique is sool (술). As terminology varies between schools, some refer to defensive maneuvers as soolgi (술기; loosely translated as “technique-ing”), while hoshinsool (호신술; meaning “self-defense”) is preferred by others.

Proper hapkido tactics include using footwork and a series of kicks and hand strikes to bridge the distance with an opponent. Then to immediately control the balance of the opponent (typically by manipulating the head and neck), for a take down or to isolate a wrist or arm and apply a joint twisting throw, depending upon the situation; Hapkido is a comprehensive system and once the opponent’s balance has been taken, there are a myriad of techniques to disable and subdue the opponent.

Hapkido makes use of pressure points known in Korean as hyeol (혈; 穴) which are also used in traditional Asian medical practices such as acupuncture point. These pressure points are either struck to produce unconsciousness or manipulated to create pain allowing one to more easily upset the balance of one’s opponent prior to a throw or joint manipulation.

Hapkido emphasizes self-defense over sport fighting and as such employs the use of weapons, including environmental weapons of opportunity, in addition to empty hand techniques. Some schools also teach hyeong (형; 形), the Korean equivalent of what is commonly known as “kata” in Japanese martial arts.

[edit]Kicking

A bidirectional kick.

A flying side kick.

The wide variety of kicks in hapkido make it distinctly Korean. Taekwondo kicks appear to be similar to many of the kicks found in hapkido, though again circular motion is emphasized. Also, in contrast to most modern taekwondo styles, hapkido utilises a wide variety of low (below the waist), hooking or sweeping kicks, with one of the most distinctive being the low spinning (sweeping) heel kick.

Hapkido’s method of delivery tends toward greater weight commitment to the strikes and less concern for quick retraction of the kicking leg. Traditionally, Choi Yong-Sool’s yu kwon sool (유권술; 柔拳術) kicking techniques were only to the lower body, but most derived varieties of hapkido, probably as a direct influence from other Korean arts, also include high kicks and jumping kicks. At the more advanced levels of Hapkido the practitioner learns “blade kicks” which utilize sweeping blade strikes of the inner and outer foot against pressure points of the body.

Two of the earliest innovators in this regard were Ji Han-Jae and Kim Moo-Hong, both of whom were exposed to what were thought to be indigenous Korean kicking arts. They combined these forms together with the yu sool concepts for striking taught to them by Choi and during a period of 8 months training together in 1961 finalized the kicking curriculum which would be used by the Korea Hapkido Association (Daehan Hapkido Hyub Hwe) for many years to come.[10]

Other influences also were exerted on the kicking techniques of important hapkido teachers. Kwon Tae-Man (Hangul: 권태만) initially studied under Ji Han-Jae before immigrating to southern California in the United States. Han Bong-soo(Hangul: 한봉수) studied under Gwonbeop (권법; 拳法) and Shūdōkan karate from Yoon Byung-In (Hangul: 윤병인), whose students were influential in the later forming of kong soo do and taekwondo styles, specifically the Chang Moo Kwanand Jidokwan. He, like Kim Moo-Hong, also trained briefly in the Korean art of taekkyeon under Lee Bok-Yong (Hangul: 이복용).[15]

Many other teachers like Myung Kwang-Sik (Hangul: 명광식), Jeong Kee-Tae (Hangul: 정기태), Lim Hyun-Soo (Hangul: 임현수), and many others trained in tang soo do and kong soo do, Shotokan and Shūdōkan karate based systems which predated and influenced the forming of first tae soo do and later modern taekwondo styles.

Kim Sang-Cook states that while many of the original yu kwon sool students were exposed to many different contemporary Korean arts the Chung Do Kwan was of particular importance in the transition from the original jujutsu based form to what we know today as modern hapkido.[16]

Most forms of hapkido include a series of double kicks used to promote balance, coordination and muscular control.

An example of a double kick set
  • Front Kick — Side Kick
  • Front Kick – Back Kick (“Turning back-Side Kick”)
  • Front Kick – Roundhouse Kick
  • Front Heel/Hook Kick — Roundhouse Kick
  • Inverted Low Side Kick – High Side Kick
  • Inside Crescent Kick — Outside Crescent Kick (or Heeldown/Axe Kick for both)
  • Inside Crescent Kick – Side Kick (or Inside Heeldown Kick and Side Kick)
  • Outside Heel-down Kick — Roundhouse Kick
  • Ankle Scoop Kick — Side Kick
  • Cover Kick – Front Kick
  • Inside Heel Hooking-the-Thigh Kick—Front Kick
  • High Spinning Heel Kick — Low Spinning Heel Kick
  • Inside Footblade Kick – Outside Footblade Kick
  • Outside Heeldown Kick – Roundhouse

After these kicks are mastered using one foot kick the student moves on to jumping versions using alternate kicking legs.

Kim Chong Sung (Jang Mu Won Hapkido Founder) (Hangul: 김종성), was one of the oldest living active hapkido instructors, maintains that the source of these kicking methods is from the indigenous Korean kicking art of taekkyeon. Others feel that these kicks are more representative of kong soo do and tang soo do styles which emerged from an adaptation of Japanese karate forms.

[edit]Hand strikes

Like most martial arts, hapkido employs a great number of punches and hand strikes, as well as elbow strikes. A distinctive example of hapkido hand techniques is “live hand” strike that focuses energy to the baek hwa hyul in the hand, producing energy strikes and internal strikes. The hand strikes are often used to weaken the opponent before joint locking and throwing, and also as finishing techniques.

Hand striking in hapkido (unless in competition) is not restricted to punches and open hand striking; some significance is given to striking with fingernails at the throat and eyes; pulling at the opponent’s genitals is also covered in conventional training.

In order to recall hand strikes more easily in an emotionally charged situation, beginning students are taught conventional, effective patterns of blocks and counterattacks called makko chigi (Hangul: 막고 치기), which progress to more complex techniques as the student becomes familiar with them.

[edit]Joint manipulation techniques

A hyperflexing wristlock used as a pain compliance technique.

The straight armlock is an example of a very effective elbowlock.

Much of hapkido’s joint control techniques are said to be derived largely from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu. They are taught similarly to aikido techniques, but in general the circles are smaller and the techniques are applied in a more linear fashion. Hapkido’s joint manipulation techniques attack both large joints (such as the elbow, shoulder, neck, back, knee, and hip) and small joints (such as wrists, fingers, ankles, toes, jaw).

Most techniques involve applying force in the direction that a joint moves naturally and then forcing it to overextend or by forcing a joint to move in a direction that goes against its natural range of motion. These techniques can be used to cause pain and force a submission, to gain control of an opponent for a ‘come along’ techniques (as is often employed in law enforcement), to assist in a hard or gentle throw or to cause the dislocation or breaking of the joint. Hapkido differs from some post war styles of aikido in its preservation of a great many techniques which are applied against the joint that were deemed by some to be inconsistent with aikido’s more pacificistic philosophy.

Wristlocks

Hapkido is well known for its use of a wide variety of wristlocks. These techniques are believed to have been derived from Daitō-ryū Aiki-jūjutsu although their manner of performance is not always identical to that of the parent art. Still many of the techniques found in hapkido are quite similar to those of Daito-ryu and of aikido which was derived from that art. Examples of such techniques are: the supinating wristlock, pronating wristlock, internal rotational wristlock, and the utilization of pressure points on the wrist. These techniques are common to many forms of Japanese jujutsu, Chinese chin na, and even “catch as catch can” wrestling.

Elbowlocks

Although well known for its wristlocking techniques hapkido has an equally wide array of tactics which centre upon the manipulation of the elbow joint (see armlock). The first self-defense technique typically taught in many hapkido schools is the knifehand elbow press. This technique is thought to be derived from Daitō-ryū’s ippondori, a method of disarming and destroying the elbow joint of a sword wielding opponent. Hapkido typically introduces this technique off a wrist grabbing attack where the defender makes a circular movement with his hands to free themselves from their opponent’s grasp and applies a pronating wristlock while cutting down upon the elbow joint with their forearm, taking their opponent down to the ground where an elbow lock is applied with one’s hand or knee to immobolize the attacker in a pin. Interestingly both Daito-ryu and aikido prefer to use handpressure on the elbow throughout the technique rather than using the forearm as a “hand blade (Korean: 수도; 手刀)”, cutting into the elbow joint, in the hapkido manner.

[edit]Throwing techniques

Hapkido students practice throws and joint manipulation in a dojang.

In addition to throws which are achieved by unbalancing one’s opponent through the twisting of their joints, hapkido also contains techniques of pure throwing which do not require the assistance of jointlocks. Some of these techniques are found within Daito-ryu but a great many of them are held in common with judo (the same Chinese characters are pronounced “yudo 유도” in Korean). Many of early practitioners of hapkido had extensive judo backgrounds including Choi Yong-Sool’s first student Seo Bok-Seob.

Judo techniques were introduced in the early years of the 20th century in Korea during the Japanese colonial period. Judo/Yudo tactics employ extensive use of throws, various chokes, hold downs, joint locks, and other grappling techniques used to control the opponent on the ground. It is believed that these techniques were absorbed into the hapkido curriculum from judo as there were a great many judo practitioners in Korea at that time and its tactics were commonly employed in the fighting of the period. Indeed, there also exists a portion of the hapkido curriculum which consists of techniques specifically designed to thwart judo style attacks.

Hapkido practitioners perform grapplingtechniques.

Hapkido holds many throwingtechniques in common with judo.

Nunchaku (Ssahng Jol Gohn; 쌍절곤), one of hapkido weapons.

The judo/yudo techniques were however adopted with adjustments made to make them blend more completely with the self-defense orientation which hapkido stresses. For example many of the judo style throwing techniques employed in hapkido do not rely upon the use of traditional judo grips on the uniform, which can play a large role in the Japanese sport. Instead in many cases they rely upon gripping the limbs, head or neck in order to be successful.

Even today Korea remains one of the strongest countries in the world for the sport of judo and this cross influence on the art of Korean hapkido to be felt in Hapkido influenced styles such as GongKwon Yusul(Hangul: 공권 유술).

[edit]Weapons

As a hapkido student advances through the various belt levels (essentially the same as other Korean arts, e.g. taekwondo), he or she learns how to employ and defend against various weapons. The first weapon encountered is most often aknife (kal; 칼). Another initial weapon used to teach both control and the basic precepts of utilizing a weapon with Hapkido techniques is the Jung Bong (police baton sized stick), techniques and defenses against the 35 cm short stick (dahn bohng; 단봉), a walking stick or cane (ji-pang-ee; 지팡이), and a rope are introduced in hapkido training. Many hapkido organisations may also include other weapons training such as a sword (gum; 검), long staff (jahng bohng; 장봉), middle length staff, nunchaku (ssahng jol gohn; 쌍절곤), war-fan or other types of bladed weapons such as twin short swords. Some schools even teach students to defend against firearms.[citation needed] Hapkido weapons techniques are often incorporated into many military and law enforcement training curricula.

[edit]Training

Hapkido training takes place in a dojang. While training methods vary, a typical training session will contain technique practice (striking techniques as well as defensive throws and grappling), break falling (nakbop; 낙법; 落法), sparring, meditation and exercises to develop internal energy (ki; 기; 氣).

Although hapkido is in some respects a “soft” art, training is very vigorous and demanding. The practitioner could benefit in training by being lean and muscular. However, strength is not a prerequisite of hapkido; what strength and fitness is necessary to perform the techniques develops naturally as a result of training.

Example Curriculum

The following is an example of the Korea Hapkido Association technical requirements from 1st degree to 5th degree Black Belt as recorded by He-Young Kimm in 1991, created in association with Ji Han Jae.[10] These techniques are now considered pre-dan level.

1st Degree Black Belt

  • Single Kicks
  • Wrist Seize Defense
  • Clothing Seize Defense
  • Punch Defense
  • Kick Defense
  • Combination Kicks
  • Jumping Kicks
  • Throw Defense
  • Knife Defense
  • Attacking Techniques / Taking the Initiative

2nd Degree Black Belt

  • Advanced Wrist Grab Defense
  • Advanced Clothing Grab Defense
  • Advanced Punch Defense
  • Advanced Kick Defense
  • Choke Defense
  • Advanced Attacking Techniques / Taking the Initiative
  • Special Kicks
  • Defense From A Sitting Or Lying Posture

3rd Degree Black Belt

  • Joint locking Counters
  • Short Stick Techniques
  • Staff Techniques

4th Degree Black Belt

  • Cane Techniques
  • Sword Techniques
  • Defense Against Multiple Attackers

5th Degree Black Belt

  • Techniques Using Opponent’s Force
  • Rope Techniques
  • Knife Throwing Techniques
  • Revival Techniques

[edit]See also

  • Aiki (martial arts principle)
  • Han Pul Hapkido

[edit]References

[edit]Notes

  1. ^ “합기도 ①” at Doosan EnCyber & EnCyber.com (두산 백과사전) (Korean)
  2. ^ “합기도 ②” at Doosan EnCyber & EnCyber.com (두산 백과사전) (Korean)
  3. ^ “합기도 ③” at Doosan EnCyber & EnCyber.com (두산 백과사전) (Korean)
  4. ^ “합기도 ④” at Doosan EnCyber & EnCyber.com (두산 백과사전) (Korean)
  5. ^ a b c d http://www.segye.com/Articles/NEWS/CULTURE/Article.asp?aid=20100216002847&subctg1=&subctg2= (Korean)
  6. ^ http://mookas.com/media_view.asp?news_no=10750 (Korean)
  7. ^ a b Sheya, Joseph K. (1982). “Historical Interview: Hapkido Grandmaster Choi, Yong-Sool (1904-1986)”. Rim’s Hapkido. Retrieved 2007-03-17.
  8. ^ Pranin, Stanley (2007). “Choi, Yong-Sool”. Encyclopedia of Aikido. Retrieved 2007-08-04.
  9. ^ Pranin, Stanley (April 1988). “Interview with Kisshomaru Ueshiba: The Early Days of Aikido”. Aiki News 77. Retrieved 2006-12-03.
  10. ^ a b c d e f g h Kimm, He-Young (1991). The Hapkido Bible. Baton Rouge, Louisiana: Andrew Jackson Press.
  11. ^ Wollmershauser, Mike; Eric Hentz (ed.) (1996). “The Beginning of Hapkido; An Interview with Hapkido Master Seo Bok-Seob”. Taekwondo Times16 (8).
  12. ^ http://taekwondo.chosun.com/site/data/html_dir/2010/01/12/2010011201527.html (Korean)
  13. ^ Corcoran, John. Inside Taekwondo. Vol.1, No.1. Feb. 1992. Article by James Dolmage Hapkido Grandmaster Ji Han-Jae Reveals the Truth; The Beauty and the Benefits of Hapkido CFW Enterprises. Burbank, USA. 1991.
  14. ^ According to published works by Seo Bok-Seob, Han Bong-Soo, Myung Kwang-Sik, Kim Jong-Seong, Jeong Kee-Tae, Spear, Robert K., etc.
  15. ^ Walker, Byron, Reflections of a Master: Philosophies of Hapkido Stylist Han Bong-soo. Martial Arts and Combat Sports Magazine. September 2001.
  16. ^ Hentz, Eric (editor). Article by Dick Morgan Interview With Granmaster Kim Sang-Cook. Taekwondo Times, November 2005. Tri-Mount Publications, Iowa 2005.

 
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Taekwondo

 
Taekwondo.svg
                                                                                                                   File:WTF Taekwondo 1.jpg
A World Taekwondo Federation taekwondo sparring match
Also known as Taekwon-Do, Tae Kwon-Do, Tae Kwon Do
Focus Striking
Country of origin  Korea
Famous practitioners Hee Il Cho, Chang Keun Choi,Choi Hong Hi, Kwang Jo Choi,Young Il Kong, Han Cha Kyo,Nam Tae Hi, Jong Soo Park,Jung Tae Park, Chong Chul Rhee, Jhoon Rhee, Ki Ha Rhee
Olympic sport Since 2000 (WTF regulations)
Taekwondo
Hangul 태권도
Hanja 跆拳道
Revised Romanization Taegwondo
McCune–Reischauer T’aekwŏndo
This article contains Koreantext. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of Hangul or Hanja.

Taekwondo /ˌtaɪˌkwɒnˈdoʊ/ (Korean 태권도 (跆拳道) [tʰɛɡwʌndo]) is a martial art that originates from Korea. It combines combat techniques, self-defense, sport, exercise, and in some cases meditation and philosophy. In 1989, taekwondo was the world’s most popular martial art in terms of number of practitioners.[1] Gyeorugi (pronounced [kjʌɾuɡi]), a type of sparring, has been an Olympic event since 2000.

There are two main branches of taekwondo development, which are not necessarily mutually exclusive:

  • “Traditional taekwondo” typically refers to the martial art as it was established in the 1950s and 1960s in the South Korean military, and in various civilian organisations, including schools and universities. In particular, the names and symbolism of the traditional patterns often refer to elements of Korean history, culture and religious philosophy. ‘Traditional Taekwon-Do’ may refer to ITF Taekwon-Do as created by the founder of ITF Taekwon-Do General Choi Hong Hi on April 11, 1955; or WTF Taekwondo, founded by Dr Kim Un Yong on May 25, 1973.
  • “Sport taekwondo” has developed in the decades since the 1950s and may have a somewhat different focus, especially in terms of its emphasis on speed and competition (as in Olympic sparring). Sport taekwondo is in turn subdivided into two main styles; one is practiced by WTF Taekwondo practitioners, and derives from Kukkiwon, the source of the sparring system sihap gyeorugi which is now an event at the summer Olympic Games and which is governed by the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF). Today, the Kukkiwon, or World Taekwondo Headquarters is the traditional center for WTF taekwondo. The other comes from the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF).[2]

Although there are doctrinal and technical differences between sparring in the two main styles and among the various organizations, the art in general emphasizes kicks thrown from a mobile stance, employing the leg’s greater reach and power (compared to the arm). Taekwondo training generally includes a system of blocks, kicks, punches, and open-handed strikes and may also include various take-downs or sweeps, throws, and joint locks. Some taekwondo instructors also incorporate the use of pressure points, known as jiapsul, as well as grabbing self-defense techniques borrowed from other martial arts, such as hapkido and judo.

In Korean, tae (태, 跆) means “to strike or break with foot”; kwon (권, 拳) means “to strike or break with fist”; and do (도, 道) means “way”, “method”, or “path”. Thus, taekwondo may be loosely translated as “the way of the hand and the foot.”[3]The name taekwondo is also written as taekwon-do, tae kwon-do, or tae kwon do by various organizations, based on historical, philosophical, or political[citation needed] reasons.

Contents

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[edit]History

See also: Korean martial arts

The oldest Korean martial art was an amalgamation of unarmed combat styles developed by the three rival Korean Kingdoms of Goguryeo, Silla, and Baekje,[4] where young men were trained in unarmed combat techniques to develop strength, speed, and survival skills. The most popular of these techniques was ssireum and subak with taekkyeon being the most popular of the segments of subak. The Northern Goguryeo kingdom was a dominant force in Northern Korea and North Eastern China prior to common era and again from the 3rd century to the 6th century CE. Before the fall of Goguryeo Dynasty 6th century CE, the Shilla Kingdom asked for help in training its people for defence against pirate invasions. During this time a few select Silla warriors were given training in taekkyeon by the early masters from Koguryo. These Shilla warriors then became known as the Hwarang. The Hwarang set up a military academy for the sons of royalty in Silla called Hwarang-do, which means “the way of flowering manhood.” The Hwarang studied taekkyeon, history, Confucian philosophy, ethics, Buddhist morality, social skills and military tactics. The guiding principles of the Hwarang warriors were based on Won Gwang’s five codes of human conduct and included loyalty, filial duty, trustworthiness, valor and justice. Taekkyeon was spread throughout Korea because the Hwarang traveled all around the peninsula to learn about the other regions and people.

In spite of Korea’s rich history of ancient and traditional martial arts, Korean martial arts faded into obscurity during the late Joseon Dynasty. Korean society became highly centralized under Korean Confucianism and martial arts were poorly regarded in a society whose ideals were epitomized by its scholar-kings.[5] Formal practices of traditional martial arts such as subak and taekkyeon were reserved for sanctioned military uses. However, taekkyeon persisted into the 19th century as a folk game during the May-Dano festival and was still taught as the Military Martial Art under the last emperor of the Choson Dynasty.[4]

During the Japanese occupation of Korea (1910–1945), all facets of ethnic Korean identity were banned or suppressed.[6] Traditional Korean martial arts such as taekkyeon were banned during this time.[7] During the occupation, taekkyeon was hidden. Now, Koreans who were able to study and receive rankings in Japan were instead exposed to Japanese martial arts.[8] Others were exposed to martial arts in China and Manchuria.[9][10][11]

When the occupation ended in 1945, Korean martial arts schools (kwans) began to open in Korea under various influences.[9][12] There are differing views on the origins of the arts taught in these schools. Some believe that they taught martial arts that were based primarily upon the traditional Korean martial arts taekkyon and subak,[13][14][15][16][17] or that taekwondo was derived from native Korean martial arts with influences from neighboring countries.[9][18][19][20][21][22] Still others believe that these schools taught arts that were almost entirely based upon karate.[23][24][25]

In 1952, at the height of the Korean War, there was a martial arts exhibition in which the kwans displayed their skills. In one demonstration, Nam Tae Hi smashed 13 roof tiles with a punch. Following this demonstration, South Korean PresidentSyngman Rhee instructed Choi Hong Hi to introduce the martial arts to the Korean army. By the mid-1950s, nine kwans had emerged. Syngman Rhee ordered that the various schools unify under a single system. The name “taekwondo” was submitted by either Choi Hong Hi (of the Oh Do Kwan) or Song Duk Son (of the Chung Do Kwan), and was accepted on April 11, 1955. As it stands today, the nine kwans are the founders of taekwondo,[26] though not all the kwans used the name. The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA) was formed in 1959/1961 to facilitate the unification.[8][14][27]

In the early 1960s, taekwondo made its début worldwide with assignment of the original masters of taekwondo to various countries. Standardization efforts in South Korea stalled, as the kwans continued to teach differing styles. Another request from the Korean government for unification resulted in the formation of the Korea Tae Soo Do Association, which changed its name back to the Korea Taekwondo Association in 1965 following a change of leadership. The International Taekwon-Do Federation was founded in 1966, followed by World Taekwondo Federation in 1973.

Since 2000, taekwondo has been one of only two Asian martial arts (the other being judo) that are included in the Olympic Games; it became a demonstration event starting with the 1988 games in Seoul, and became an official medal event starting with the 2000 games in Sydney. In 2010, taekwondo was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport.[28]

One source has estimated that as of 2009, taekwondo was practiced in 123 countries, with over 30 million practitioners and 3 million individuals with black belts throughout the world.[citation needed] The South Korean government in the same year published an estimate of 70 million practitioners in 190 countries.[29]

[edit]Features

A jumping reverse hook kick

See also: List of Taekwondo techniques

Taekwondo is known for its emphasis on kicking techniques, which distinguishes it from martial arts such as karate or southern styles of kung fu. The rationale is that the leg is the longest and strongest weapon a martial artist has, and kicks thus have the greatest potential to execute powerful strikes without successful retaliation.

Taekwondo as a martial art is popular with people of both genders and of many ages. Physically, taekwondo develops strength, speed, balance, flexibility, and stamina. An example of the union of mental and physical discipline is the breakingof wooden boards, bricks or tiles, which requires both physical mastery of the technique and the concentration to focus one’s power.

A taekwondo student typically wears a uniform (dobok 도복/道服), often white but sometimes black (or other colors), with a belt (dti 띠) tied around the waist. There are at least three major styles of do-bok, with the most obvious differences being in the style of jacket: (1) the cross-over front jacket that resembles traditional Asian clothing, (2) the V-neck jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by WTF practitioners, and (3) the vertical-closing front jacket (no cross-over) typically worn by ITF practitioners. The belt colour and any insignia thereon indicate the student’s rank. In general, the darker the colour, the higher the rank. The school or place where instruction is given is called the do-jang (도장). The grandmaster of thedo-jang is called a gwan-jang-nim (관장님); Master (senior instructor or head of do-jang) is called sa-beom-nim (사범님); Instructor is called gyo-san-nim (교사님); Assistant Instructor is called jo-gyo-nim (조교님)

Taekwondo, along with many other martial arts, is traditionally performed in bare feet, though there are specialist training shoes that can sometimes be worn.

Although each taekwondo club or school will be different, a student typically takes part in most or all of the following:[30]

  • Learning the techniques and curriculum of taekwondo
  • Both anaerobic and aerobic workout, including stretching
  • Self-defense techniques (hosinsool 호신술)
  • Patterns (also called forms, poomsae 품새/品勢, teul 틀, hyeong 형/型)
  • Sparring (called gyeorugi 겨루기, or matseogi 맞서기 in the ITF), which may include 7-, 3-, 2- and 1-step sparring, free-style sparring, arranged sparring, point sparring, and other types
  • Relaxation and meditation exercises; breathing control
  • Throwing and/or falling techniques (deonjigi 던지기 and ddeoreojigi 떨어지기)
  • A focus on mental and ethical discipline, etiquette, justice, respect, and self-confidence
  • Breaking (gyeokpa 격파 or weerok), using techniques to break boards for testing, training and martial arts demonstrations. Demonstrations often also incorporate bricks, tiles, and blocks of ice or other materials. Can be separated into three types:
    • Power breaking – using straightforward techniques to break as many boards as possible
    • Speed breaking – boards are held loosely by one edge, putting special focus on the speed required to perform the break
    • Special techniques – breaking fewer boards but using jumping or flying techniques to attain greater heights, distances, or to clear obstacles
  • Exams to progress to the next rank

Some schools teach the “sine wave” technique when performing patterns. This involves raising one’s center of gravity between techniques, then lowering it as the technique is performed, producing the up-and-down movement from which the term “sine wave” is derived. Other schools teach that one’s center of gravity should remain generally constant throughout the performance of a pattern except where the pattern’s description states otherwise.

[edit]Organizations

Question book-new.svg This section does not cite anyreferences or sources. (April 2012)

Four concrete paving bricks broken with a knife-hand strike. Breaking techniques are often practiced in taekwondo.

Two of the most popular systems of taekwondo are named solely after their respective organizations: the World Taekwondo Federation (WTF) and the International Taekwon-Do Federation (ITF).

The WTF was founded in 1973, with roots in the KTA. The KTA Central Dojang had been opened in South Korea in 1972, and a few months later, the name was changed to the Kukkiwon. The following year, the WTF was formed. The International Olympic Committee recognized the WTF and taekwondo sparring in 1980.

Although the terms “WTF” and “Kukkiwon” are often mistakenly used interchangeably, the Kukkiwon is a completely different organization which trains and certifies instructors and issues official dan and poom certificates worldwide. The Kukkiwon has its own unique physical building that contains the administrative offices of Kukkiwon (World Taekwondo Headquarters) in Seoul, South Korea and is the system of taekwondo. The WTF is a tournament committee and is not technically a style or a system.

The ITF was founded in 1966 by Choi Hong Hi as a splinter group from the KTA. After Choi’s death in 2002, a number of succession disputes splintered the ITF into three different groups, all claiming to be the original. These three bodies are all private organizations. Two are located in Austria and one in Canada. The unofficial training headquarters of the ITF is located at the Taekwondo Palace in Pyongyang, North Korea, and was founded in the mid-1990s. There are many other private organizations, such as the World Traditional Taekwondo Union and American Taekwondo Association promoting the Songahm style of taekwondo and Rhee Taekwon-Do teaching the military style of taekwondo. Events and competitions held by private organizations are mostly closed to other taekwondo students. However, the WTF-sanctioned events allow any person, regardless of school affiliation or martial arts style, to compete in WTF events as long as he or she is a member of the WTF Member National Association in his or her nation, which is open to anyone to join. The major technical differences among these many organizations revolve around the patterns, called hyeong 형, poomsae 품새, or teul 틀, sets of prescribed formal sequences of movements that demonstrate mastery of posture, positioning, and technique, sparring rules for competition, and philosophy.

In addition to these private organizations, the original schools (kwans) that formed the organization that would eventually become the Kukkiwon continue to exist as independent fraternal membership organizations that support the WTF and the Kukkiwon. The official curriculum of the kwans is that of the Kukkiwon. The kwans also function as a channel for the issuing of Kukkiwon dan and poom certification (black belt ranks) for their members.

[edit]Ranks, belts, and promotion

Taekwondo ranks are typically separated into “junior” and “senior,” or “student” and “instructor,” sections. The junior section typically consists of ten ranks indicated by the Korean word geup 급 (also Romanized as gup or kup). The junior ranks are usually identified by belts of various colors, depending on the school, so these ranks are sometimes called “color belts”. Geup rank may be indicated by stripes on belts rather than by colored belts. Students begin at tenth geup (often indicated by a white belt) and advance toward first geup (often indicated by a red belt with a black stripe).

The senior section is typically made up of nine ranks. These ranks are called dan 단, also referred to as “black belts” or “degrees” (as in “third dan” or “third-degree black belt”). Black belts begin at first degree and advance to second, third, and so on. The degree is often indicated on the belt itself with stripes, Roman numerals, or other methods; but sometimes black belts are plain and unadorned regardless of rank.

To advance from one rank to the next, students typically complete promotion tests in which they demonstrate their proficiency in the various aspects of the art before a panel of judges or their teacher. Promotion tests vary from school to school, but may include such elements as the execution of patterns, which combine various techniques in specific sequences; the breaking of boards to demonstrate the ability to use techniques with both power and control; sparring and self-defense to demonstrate the practical application and control of techniques; and answering questions on terminology, concepts and history to demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the art. For higher dan tests, students are sometimes required to take a written test or submit a research paper in addition to taking the practical test.

Promotion from one geup to the next can proceed rapidly in some schools, since schools often allow geup promotions every two, three, or four months. Students of geup rank learn the most basic techniques first, and then move on to more advanced techniques as they approach first dan. Many of the older and more traditional schools often take longer to allow students to test for higher ranks than newer, more contemporary schools, as they may not have the required testing intervals.

In contrast, promotion from one dan to the next can take years. The general rule is that a black belt may advance from one rank to the next only after the number of years equivalent to the current rank. For example, a newly-promoted third-degree black belt may not be allowed to advance to fourth-degree until three years have passed. Some organizations also have age requirements related to dan promotions, and may grant younger students poom 품 (junior black belt) ranks rather than dan ranks until they reach a certain age.

Black belt ranks may have titles associated with them, such as “master” and “instructor” but taekwondo organizations vary widely in rules and standards when it comes to ranks and titles. What holds true in one organization may not hold true in another, as is the case in many martial art systems. For example, achieving first dan ranking with three years’ training might be typical in one organization, but fast in another organization, and likewise for other ranks. Similarly, the title for a given dan rank in one organization might not be the same as the title for that dan rank in another organization.

In the International Taekwon-Do Federation, instructors holding 1st to 3rd dan are called Boosabum (assistant instructor), those holding 4th to 6th dan are called Sabum (Instructor), those holding 7th to 8th dan are called Sahyun (master), and those holding 9th dan are called Saseong (grand master).[31] This system does not, however, necessarily apply to other taekwondo organizations.

[edit]Philosophy

Since taekwondo is developed in several different kwans, there are several different expressions of taekwondo philosophy. For example, the tenets of the ITF are said to be summed up by the last two phrases in the ITF Student Oath: “I shall be a champion of freedom and justice” and “I shall build a more peaceful world.”[citation needed] Many forms of Tae Kwon Do, however, are based on what are called the “Five Tenets of Tae Kwon Do”. These tenets are: Courtesy, Integrity, Perseverance, Self Control, and Indomitable Spirit.[citation needed]

[edit]Competition

Taekwondo competition typically involves sparring, breaking, patterns, and self-defense (hosinsul). In Olympic taekwondo competition, however, only sparring (using WTF competition rules) is contested.[32]

There may be two kinds of competition sparring: point, which all strikes are light contact, and the clock is not stopped when a point is scored; and Olympic, where all strikes are full contact and the clock continues when points are scored. (citing found at aau website)[citation needed]

[edit]World Taekwondo Federation

Official WTF trunk protector (hogu), forearm guards and shin guards

Under World Taekwondo Federation and Olympic rules, sparring is a full-contact event and takes place between two competitors in an area measuring 8 meters square.[33] A win can occur by points, or if one competitor is unable to continue (knockout) the other competitor wins.[34] Each match consists of three semi-continuous rounds of contact, with one minute’s rest between rounds. There are two age categories: 14–17 years and 18 years and older.

Points are awarded for permitted, accurate, and powerful techniques to the legal scoring areas; light contact does not score any points. The only techniques allowed are kicks (delivering a strike using an area of the foot below the ankle) and punches (delivering a strike using the closed fist).[35] In most competitions, points are awarded by three corner judges using electronic scoring tallies. Several A-Class tournaments, however, are now trialing electronic scoring equipment contained within competitors’ body protectors. This limits corner judges to scoring only attacks to the head. Some believe that the new electronic scoring system will help to reduce controversy concerning judging decisions,[36] but this technology is still not universally accepted.[37] Beginning in 2009, a kick or punch that makes contact with the opponent’s hogu (the body guard that functions as a scoring target) scores one point; if a kick to the hogu involved a technique that includes fully turning the attacking competitor’s body, so that the back is fully exposed to the targeted competitor during execution of the technique (spinning kick), an additional point is awarded; a kick to the head scores three points; as of October 2010 an additional point is awarded if a turning kick was used to execute this attack.[38] Punches to the head are not allowed. As of March 2010, no additional points are awarded for knocking down an opponent (beyond the normal points awarded for legal strikes).

The referee can give penalties at any time for rule-breaking, such as hitting an area not recognized as a target, usually the legs or neck. Penalties mean that either half a point or a whole point is dropped. If the number of points at the end of the match isn’t a whole number the score is rounded up to the nearest whole.

At the end of three rounds, the competitor with more points wins the match. In the event of a tie at the end of three rounds, a fourth “sudden death” overtime round, sometimes called “Golden Point”, will be held to determine the winner after a one minute rest period. In this round the first competitor to score a point wins the match. If there is no score in the additional round the winner shall be decided by superiority as determined by the refereeing officials.[38]

Until 2008, if one competitor gained a 7-point lead over the other, or if one competitor reached a total of 12 points, then that competitor was immediately declared the winner and the match ended. These rules were abolished by the WTF at the start of 2009. In October 2010 the WTF reintroduced a point gap rule. Under the new rule if a competitor has a 12 point lead at the end of the second round or achieves a 12 point lead at any point in the 3rd round then the match is over and the athlete in the lead is declared the winner.[38]

Depending on the type of tournament and club, competitors may also use fist protectors, foot protectors, instep guards, helmets and mouth guards.

[edit]International Taekwon-Do Federation

Common styles of ITF point sparring equipment

The International Taekwon-Do Federation’s sparring rules are similar to the WTF’s rules, but differ in several aspects.

  • Hand and foot attacks to the head are allowed.[39]
  • The scoring system is:
    • 1 Point for: Punches to the body or kicks to the body.
    • 2 Points for: Kicks to the head and punches to the head.
    • 3 Points for: Jump kicks to the head.
  • The competition area may vary between 9×9 meters or 8×8 meters in international championships.

Competitors do not wear the hogu (although they are required to wear approved foot and hand protection equipment, as well as optional head guards). This scoring system varies between individual organisations within the ITF- for example, in the TAGB, punches to the head or body score 1, kicks to the body score 2 and kicks to the head score 3

A continuous point system is utilized in ITF competition, where the fighters are allowed to continue after scoring a technique. Full-force blows are allowed, and knockouts result in a victory; although these rules vary between ITF organizations. At the end of two minutes (or some other specified time) the competitor with more scoring techniques wins.

ITF competitions also feature performances of patterns, breaking, and ‘special techniques’ (where competitors perform prescribed board breaks at great heights).

[edit]Other organizations

American Amateur Athletic Union (AAU) competitions are very similar, except that different styles of pads and gear are allowed.[citation needed]

Apart from WTF and ITF tournaments, major taekwondo competitions (all featuring WTF taekwondo only) include:

  • Olympic Games
  • Universiade
  • Asian Games
  • South East Asian Games
  • South Asian Games

WTF taekwondo features in every multi-sport games except the Small Island Games. It was accepted as a Commonwealth Games sport in June 2010.

[edit]Safety

Although taekwondo competitors have an apparently substantial risk of injury, most injuries are minor. A 2009 meta-analysis reported that an average of about 8% of competitors are injured, per exposure to competition; age, gender, and level of play did not significantly affect the injury rate.[40] The legs are the most common location for injuries, and bruising is the most common injury type.

Injuries may occur if students are taught to block punches in a formal manner (chamber position, perfect angles, etc.) even when sparring. When comparing the speed of a punch and the reaction time and time taken to block effectively, it is difficult to block a punch. Many taekwondo schools teach students blocking for grading and classwork and dodging or parrying for sparring.

[edit]Korean commands

In taekwondo, Korean language commands are often used. Korean numerals may be used as prompts or commands. Often, students count in Korean during their class, and during tests they are usually asked what certain Korean words used in class mean. These words are fairly common amongst taekwondo schools, but accuracy of pronunciation can vary greatly.

Romanization Hangeul Hanja English
Cha ryeot 차렷 Attention
Gyeong rae 경례 敬禮 Bow
Ba ro 바로 Return
Shi eo 쉬어 At ease (relax)
Hyu shik 휴식 休息 Rest period (break)
Gi hap 기합 氣合 Yell (shout)
Jun bi 준비 準備 Ready
Shi Jak 시작 始作 Begin (start)
Gal ryeo 갈려 Break (separate)
Gye sok 계속 繼續 Continue
Geu man 그만 Finish (stop)
Dwiro dol-a 뒤로 돌아 About face (180 degrees)
Hae san 해산 解散 Dismiss

[edit]See also

  • World Taekwondo Championships

[edit]References

  1. ^ Park Yeon Hee; Park Yeon Hwan; & Jon Gerrard (1989). Tae Kwon Do: The Ultimate Reference Guide to the World’s Most Popular Martial Art. Checkmark Books. ISBN 978-0-8160-3839-8.
  2. ^ “General Choi Hong Hi”. The Daily Telegraph (London: Telegraph Media Group). 2002-06-26. Retrieved 2008-07-18.
  3. ^ “World Taekwondo Federation”. What Is Taekwondo. Retrieved 8 February 2012.
  4. ^ a b Capener, Steven D.; H. Edward Kim (ed.) (2000). Taekwondo: The Spirit of Korea (portions of). Ministry of Culture and Tourism, Republic of Korea. “”Korea has a long history of martial arts stretching well back into ancient times. Written historical records from the early days of the Korean peninsula are sparse, however, there are a number of well-preserved archeological artifacts that tell stores of Korea’s early martial arts.”, “taekwondo leaders started to experiment with a radical new system that would result in the development of a new martial sport different from anything ever seen before. This new martial sport would bear some important similarities to the traditional Korean game of taekkyon.””
  5. ^ Cummings, B. (2005). Korea’s Place in the Sun. New York, NY: W.W. Norton.
  6. ^ Han, Woo-Keun (1970). The History of Korea. Korea: The Eul-Yoo Publishing Company. ISBN 978-89-324-5082-7.
  7. ^ Kyungji Kim (1986). Taekwondo: a brief history. Korea Journal.
  8. ^ a b Park, S. W. (1993): About the author. In H. H. Choi: Taekwon-Do: The Korean art of self-defence, 3rd ed. (Vol. 1, pp. 241–274). Mississauga: International Taekwon-Do Federation.
  9. ^ a b c Glen R. Morris. “The History of Taekwondo”.
  10. ^ Cook, Doug (2006). “Chapter 3: The Formative Years of Taekwondo”. Traditional Taekwondo: Core Techniques, History and Philosophy. Boston: YMAA Publication Center. pp. 19. ISBN 978-1-59439-066-1.
  11. ^ Choi Hong Hi (1999). “interviews with General Choi.”. The Condensed Encyclopedia Fifth Edition. Young Choi’s father sent him to study calligraphy under one of the most famous teachers in Korea, Mr. Han II Dong. Han, in addition to his skills as a calligrapher, was also a master oftaekkyeon, the ancient Korean art of foot fighting. The teacher, concerned over the frail condition of his new student, began teaching him the rigorous exercises of taekkyeon to help build up his body.
  12. ^ Choi Young-ryul, Jeon Jeong-Woo (2006). “Comparative Study of the Techniques of Taekwondo and Taekkyon” (of publication = Academic Journal). Institution of physical exercise, Korea. pp. 197~206.
  13. ^ “About Tae Kwon Do”. The World Taekwondo Federation.
  14. ^ a b “Historical Background of Taekwondo”. The Korea Taekwondo Association (KTA).
  15. ^ “Tae Kwon Do”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Encyclopædia Britannica. 2008.
  16. ^ “Comparing Styles of Taekwondo, Taekkyon and Karate(Video)”. TaekwondoBible.com. “”we compare styles of Taekwondo, Taekkyon and Karate in their Kyorugi(sparring). In this comparison, we can see the clear and distinct similarity of Taekwondo and Taekkyon(the old style of Taekwondo). As far as the essence of martial arts is the technical system of attack and defense, sparring style of each martial art will show directly the similarities of martial arts.””
  17. ^ “Brief History of Taekwondo”. Long Beach Press-Telegram. 2005.
  18. ^ Lawler, Jennifer (1999). “The History of Tae Kwon Do”. The Secrets of Tae Kwon Do. Chicago: McGraw-Hill. ISBN 1-57028-202-1.
  19. ^ 허인욱 (In Uk Heo) (January 2004). “형성과정으로 본 태권도의 정체성에 관하여 (A Study on Shaping of the Taekwondo)” (in Korean with English abstract). 체육사학회지 (Korean Journal of History for Physical Education) 14 (1): 79–87. Retrieved 2008-06-27. “”Some of grand masters of 5 do-jang(道場, Taekwondo Gymnasium)s, which is unified as TKD afterwards, trained Karate during their stay in Japan as students. And the others trained martial arts in Manchuria Therefore it can`t be described as TKD is developed by influence of Karate only. And considering the fact that the main curriculum of those five do-jangs was centered on kicking technique originate from Korean folk, so we know that the current TKD seems to be affected by Korean traditional martial arts.””
  20. ^ Patrick Zukeran (2003). “The Origins and Popularity of the Martial Arts”. Probe Ministries.
  21. ^ Henning, Stanley E. (December 1981). “The Chinese Martial Arts in Historical Perspective”. Military Affairs (Society for Military History) 45 (4): 173–179. ISSN 0899-3718. “The Han Dynasty (206 B.C. – 220 A.D.) was a period during which conscript armies, trained in the martial arts, expanded the Chinese empire to Turkestan in the west and Korea in the northeast, where commanderies were established. It is possible that Chinese shoubo was transmitted to Korea at this time, and that it was the antecedent to Korean Taekwondo. According to one recent Korean source, “Taekwondo is known to have had its beginning in the period 209–427 A.D. …””
  22. ^ Jung Kun-Pyo, Lee Kang-Koo (2007). “An Analysis on the various views of Taekwondo History” (of publication = Academic Journal). Institution of Physical science, Korea. pp. 3~12(10 pages).
  23. ^ Capener, Steven D. (Winter 1995). “Problems in the Identity and Philosophy of T’aegwondo and Their Historical Causes”. Korea Journal (Korean National Commission for UNESCO). ISSN 0023-3900. “[dubious – discuss] “… t’aegwondo was first brought into Korea from Japan in the form of Japanese karate around the time of the liberation of Korea from Japanese colonial rule …”.”
  24. ^ Madis, Eric (2003). “(The Evolution of Taekwondo from Japanese Karate)”. In Green, Thomas A. and Joseph R. Svinth. Martial Arts in the Modern World. Praeger Publishers. ISBN 0-275-98153-3. “[dubious – discuss] “…the following essay links the origins of taekwondo to twentieth-century Shotokan, Shudokan, and Shitō-ryū karate and shows how the revised history was developed to support South Korean nationalism.”
  25. ^ Burdick, Dakin (1997). People and Events of Taekwondo’s Formative Years. volume 6, issue 1. Journal of Asian Martial Arts.
  26. ^ Sik, Kang Won; Lee Kyong Myung (1999). A Modern History of Taekwondo. Seoul: Pogyŏng Munhwasa. ISBN 978-89-358-0124-4.
  27. ^ Jewell, D. (2005): Rhee Taekwon-Do: A history of taekwondo Retrieved on 23 July 2009.
  28. ^ Williams, Bob (23 June 2010). “Taekwondo set to join 2018 Commonwealth Games after ‘category two’ classification”. The Telegraph. Retrieved 21 November 2010.
  29. ^ Kim, H.-S. (2009): Taekwondo: A new strategy for Brand Korea (21 December 2009). Retrieved on 8 January 2010.
  30. ^ “Taekwondo”. Taekwondo Training. Retrieved 6 February 2012.
  31. ^ Choi, H. H. (1993): Taekwon-Do: The Korean art of self-defence, 3rd ed. (Vol. 1, p. 122). Mississauga: International Taekwon-Do Federation.
  32. ^ World Taekwondo Federation (2004). “Kyorugi rules”. Rules. http://www.wtf.org. Archived from the original on 2007-07-02. Retrieved 2007-08-11.
  33. ^ World Taekwondo Federation (2010): Competition rules & interpretation (2 March 2010, p. 5). Retrieved on 31 May 2010.
  34. ^ http://www.wtf.org/wtf_eng/site/rules/file/WTF_Competition_Rules_and_Interpretation_GA_Passed_on_Mar_2_2010_with_photo.pdf Article 18
  35. ^ http://www.wtf.org/wtf_eng/site/rules/file/WTF_Competition_Rules_and_Interpretation_GA_Passed_on_Mar_2_2010_with_photo.pdf p.26 Article 11
  36. ^ http://www.gazette.com/articles/olympic-60680-lopez-taekwondo.html
  37. ^ http://www.morethanthegames.co.uk/summer-sports/0610695-british-taekwondo-chief-says-new-judging-system-far-flawless
  38. ^ a b c World Taekwondo Federation (Oct 7, 2010): Competition rules & interpretation (7 October 2010, pp. 31–32). Retrieved on 27 November 2010.
  39. ^ International Taekwon-Do Federation Articles 33 & 34
  40. ^ Lystad RP, Pollard H, Graham PL (2009). “Epidemiology of injuries in competition taekwondo: a meta-analysis of observational studies”. J Sci Med Sport 12 (6): 614–21. doi:10.1016/j.jsams.2008.09.013. PMID 19054714.

 

 
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Karate (空手)

 
Karatedo.svg
                                                                  File:Hanashiro Chomo.jpg
Hanashiro Chōmo
Also known as Karate-dō (空手道)
Focus Striking
Hardness Full contact, Semi contact, Light contact
Country of origin Ryūkyū Kingdom Ryūkyū Kingdom / JapanJapan
Creator Sakukawa Kanga; Matsumura Sōkon; Itosu Ankō; Arakaki Seishō; Higaonna Kanryō; Gichin Funakoshi; Motobu Chōki
Parenthood Chinese martial arts, Okinawan martial arts/ indigenous martial arts of Ryukyu Islands such asNaha-te, Shuri-te, Tomari-te[1][2]
Olympic sport Not voted in 2009 (for 2016)

Karate (空手?) (play /kəˈrɑːtiː/; Japanese pronunciation: [kaɽate] ( listen)) is a martial art developed in the Ryukyu Islands in what is now Okinawa, Japan. It was developed partially from indigenous fighting methods called te (手?, literally “hand”; Tii in Okinawan) and from Chinese martial arts.[1][2] Karate is a striking art using punching, kicking, knee and elbow strikes, and open-handed techniques such as knife-hands. In some styles, grappling, locks, restraints, throws, and vital point strikesare taught.[3] A karate practitioner is called a karateka (空手家?). There are several different styles of karate, most of them stemming from the same genealogical tree, and some others acquiring the name “karate” for practical reasons while actually deriving from a mix of other martial arts. Each style of karate stresses some techniques more than others, or has some differences in performing the same techniques from what other styles do. However, most karate schools and styles adhere to the same basic principles, and use the same basic attire, stances, and terminology.

Karate was possibly developed in the Ryukyu Kingdom, but there is historical proof that karate (Okinawa-te or karate-jutsu) was systematically taught in Japan after the Taisho era (after 1912).[4] It was brought to the Japanese mainland in the early 20th century during a time of cultural exchanges between the Japanese and the Ryukyuans. In 1922 the Japanese Ministry of Education invited Gichin Funakoshi to Tokyo to give a karate demonstration. In 1924 Keio University established the first university karate club in Japan and by 1932, major Japanese universities had karate clubs.[5] In this era of escalating Japanese militarism,[6] the name was changed from 唐手 (“Chinese hand” or “Tang hand” verbatim, as the name of theTang dynasty was a synonym to China in Okinawa) to 空手 (“empty hand”) – both of which are pronounced karate – to indicate that the Japanese wished to develop the combat form in Japanese style.[7] After the Second World War, Okinawabecame an important United States military site and karate became popular among servicemen stationed there.[8]

The martial arts movies of the 1960s and 1970s served to greatly increase the popularity of martial arts around the world, and in English the word karate began to be used in a generic way to refer to all striking-based Oriental martial arts.[9] Karate schools began appearing across the world, catering to those with casual interest as well as those seeking a deeper study of the art.

Shigeru Egami, Chief Instructor of Shotokan Dojo, opined “that the majority of followers of karate in overseas countries pursue karate only for its fighting techniques … Movies and television … depict karate as a mysterious way of fighting capable of causing death or injury with a single blow … the mass media present a pseudo art far from the real thing.”[10] Shoshin Nagamine said “Karate may be considered as the conflict within oneself or as a life-long marathon which can be won only through self-discipline, hard training and one’s own creative efforts.”[11]

For many practitioners, karate is a deeply philosophical practice. Karate-do teaches ethical principles and can have spiritual significance to its adherents. Gichin Funakoshi (“Father of Modern Karate”) titled his autobiography Karate-Do: My Way of Life in recognition of the transforming nature of karate study. Today karate is practiced for self-perfection, for cultural reasons, for self-defense and as a sport.

In 2009, in the 121th IOC (International Olympic Committee) voting, karate did not receive the necessary two-thirds majority vote to become an Olympic sport.[12] Web Japan (sponsored by the Japanese Ministry of Foreign Affairs) claims there are 50 million karate practitioners worldwide[13] while the WKF claims there are 100 million practitioners around the world.[14]

Contents

[show]

[edit]History

[edit]Okinawa

See also: Okinawan martial arts

Karate began as a common fighting system known as te (Okinawan: ti) among the Pechin class of the Ryukyuans. After trade relationships were established with the Ming dynasty of China by King Satto of Chūzan in 1372, some forms of Chinese martial arts were introduced to the Ryukyu Islands by the visitors from China, particularly Fujian Province. A large group of Chinese families moved to Okinawa around 1392 for the purpose of cultural exchange, where they established the community of Kumemura and shared their knowledge of a wide variety of Chinese arts and sciences, including the Chinese martial arts. The political centralization of Okinawa by King Shō Hashi in 1429 and the policy of banning weapons, enforced in Okinawa after the invasion of the Shimazu clan in 1609, are also factors that furthered the development of unarmed combat techniques in Okinawa.[2]

There were few formal styles of te, but rather many practitioners with their own methods. One surviving example is the Motobu-ryū school passed down from the Motobu family by Seikichi Uehara.[15] Early styles of karate are often generalized asShuri-te, Naha-te, and Tomari-te, named after the three cities from which they emerged.[16] Each area and its teachers had particular kata, techniques, and principles that distinguished their local version of te from the others.

Members of the Okinawan upper classes were sent to China regularly to study various political and practical disciplines. The incorporation of empty-handed Chinese Kung Fu into Okinawan martial arts occurred partly because of these exchanges and partly because of growing legal restrictions on the use of weaponry. Traditional karate kata bear a strong resemblance to the forms found in Fujian martial arts such as Fujian White Crane, Five Ancestors, and Gangrou-quan (Hard Soft Fist; pronounced “Gōjūken” in Japanese).[17] Many Okinawan weapons such as the sai, tonfa, and nunchaku may have originated in and around Southeast Asia.

Sakukawa Kanga (1782–1838) had studied pugilism and staff (bo) fighting in China (according to one legend, under the guidance of Kosokun, originator of kusanku kata). In 1806 he started teaching a fighting art in the city of Shuri that he called “Tudi Sakukawa,” which meant “Sakukawa of China Hand.” This was the first known recorded reference to the art of “Tudi,” written as 唐手. Around the 1820s Sakukawa’s most significant student Matsumura Sōkon (1809–1899) taught a synthesis of te (Shuri-te and Tomari-te) and Shaolin (Chinese 少林) styles. Matsumura’s style would later become the Shōrin-ryū style.

Ankō Itosu
Grandfather of Modern Karate

Matsumura taught his art to Itosu Ankō (1831–1915) among others. Itosu adapted two forms he had learned from Matsumara. These are kusanku and chiang nan[citation needed]. He created the ping’an forms (“heian” or “pinan” in Japanese) which are simplified kata for beginning students. In 1901 Itosu helped to get karate introduced into Okinawa’s public schools. These forms were taught to children at the elementary school level. Itosu’s influence in karate is broad. The forms he created are common across nearly all styles of karate. His students became some of the most well known karate masters, including Gichin Funakoshi, Kenwa Mabuni, and Motobu Chōki. Itosu is sometimes referred to as “the Grandfather of Modern Karate.”[18]

In 1881 Higaonna Kanryō returned from China after years of instruction with Ryu Ryu Ko and founded what would become Naha-te. One of his students was the founder of Gojū-ryū, Chōjun Miyagi. Chōjun Miyagi taught such well-known karateka asSeko Higa (who also trained with Higaonna), Meitoku Yagi, Miyazato Ei’ichi, and Seikichi Toguchi, and for a very brief time near the end of his life, An’ichi Miyagi (a teacher claimed by Morio Higaonna).

In addition to the three early te styles of karate a fourth Okinawan influence is that of Kanbun Uechi (1877–1948). At the age of 20 he went to Fuzhou in Fujian Province, China, to escape Japanese military conscription. While there he studied under Shushiwa. He was a leading figure of Chinese Nanpa Shorin-ken style at that time.[19] He later developed his own style of Uechi-ryū karate based on the Sanchin, Seisan, and Sanseiryu kata that he had studied in China.[20]

[edit]Japan

See also: Japanese martial arts

Masters of karate in Tokyo (c. 1930s)
Kanken Toyama, Hironori Otsuka, Takeshi Shimoda, Gichin Funakoshi, Motobu Chōki, Kenwa Mabuni, Genwa Nakasone, and Shinken Taira (from left to right)

Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan karate, is generally credited with having introduced and popularized karate on the main islands of Japan. In addition many Okinawans were actively teaching, and are thus also responsible for the development of karate on the main islands. Funakoshi was a student of both Asato Ankō and Itosu Ankō (who had worked to introduce karate to the Okinawa Prefectural School System in 1902). During this time period, prominent teachers who also influenced the spread of karate in Japan included Kenwa Mabuni, Chōjun Miyagi, Motobu Chōki, Kanken Tōyama, and Kanbun Uechi. This was a turbulent period in the history of the region. It includes Japan’s annexation of the Okinawan island group in 1872, the First Sino-Japanese War (1894–1895), the Russo-Japanese War (1904–1905), the annexation of Korea, and the rise of Japanese militarism (1905–1945).

Japan was invading China at the time, and Funakoshi knew that the art of Tang/China hand would not be accepted; thus the change of the art’s name to “way of the empty hand.” The dō suffix implies that karatedō is a path to self-knowledge, not just a study of the technical aspects of fighting. Like most martial arts practiced in Japan, karate made its transition from –jutsu to –dō around the beginning of the 20th century. The “dō” in “karate-dō” sets it apart from karate-jutsu, as aikido is distinguished from aikijutsu, judo from jujutsu, kendo from kenjutsu and iaido from iaijutsu.

Gichin Funakoshi
Founder of Shotokan Karate

Funakoshi changed the names of many kata and the name of the art itself (at least on mainland Japan), doing so to get karate accepted by the Japanese budō organization Dai Nippon Butoku Kai. Funakoshi also gave Japanese names to many of the kata. The five pinan forms became known as heian, the three naihanchi forms became known as tekki, seisan as hangetsu, Chintō as gankaku, wanshu as empi, and so on. These were mostly political changes, rather than changes to the content of the forms, although Funakoshi did introduce some such changes. Funakoshi had trained in two of the popular branches of Okinawan karate of the time, Shorin-ryū and Shōrei-ryū. In Japan he was influenced by kendo, incorporating some ideas about distancing and timing into his style. He always referred to what he taught as simply karate, but in 1936 he built a dojo in Tokyo and the style he left behind is usually called Shotokan after this dojo.

The modernization and systemization of karate in Japan also included the adoption of the white uniform that consisted of the kimono and the dogi or keikogi—mostly called just karategi—and colored belt ranks. Both of these innovations were originated and popularized by Jigoro Kano, the founder of judo and one of the men Funakoshi consulted in his efforts to modernize karate.

A new form of karate called Kyokushin was formally founded in 1957 by Masutatsu Oyama (who was born a Korean, Choi Yeong-Eui 최영의). Kyokushin is largely a synthesis of Shotokan and Gōjū-ryū. It teaches a curriculum that emphasizesaliveness, physical toughness, and full contact sparring. Because of its emphasis on physical, full-force sparring, Kyokushin is now often called “full contact karate”, or “Knockdown karate” (after the name for its competition rules). Many other karate organizations and styles are descended from the Kyokushin curriculum.

The World Karate Federation recognizes these styles of karate in its kata list[21]

  • Shotokan,
  • Shitō-ryū,
  • Gōjū-ryū,
  • Wadō-ryū.

The World Union of Karate-do Federations (WUKF) recognizes these styles of karate in its kata list.[22]

  • Shotokan,
  • Shitō-ryū,
  • Gōjū-ryū,
  • Wadō-ryū,
  • Shōrin-ryū,
  • Uechi-ryū,
  • Kyokushinkaikan,
  • Budōkan.

Many schools would be affiliated with, or heavily influenced by, one or more of these styles.

[edit]Practice

See also: Okinawan kobudō and Japanese martial arts#Philosophical and strategic concepts

Karate can be practiced as an art (budō), as a sport, as a combat sport, or as self defense training. Traditional karate places emphasis on self-development (budō).[23] Modern Japanese style training emphasizes the psychological elements incorporated into a proper kokoro (attitude) such as perseverance, fearlessness, virtue, and leadership skills. Sport karate places emphasis on exercise and competition. Weapons is important training activity in some styles of karate.

Karate training is commonly divided into kihon (basics or fundamentals), kata (forms), and kumite (sparring).

[edit]Kihon

Main article: Kihon

Karate styles place varying importance on kihon. Typically this is performance in unison of a technique or a combination of techniques by a group of karateka. Kihon may also be prearranged drills in smaller groups or in pairs.

[edit]Kata

Motobu Chōki in Naihanchi-dachi, one of the basic karate stances

Main article: Karate kata

Kata (型:かた) means literally “shape” or “model.” Kata is a formalized sequence of movements which represent various offensive and defensive postures. These postures are based on idealized combat applications. The applications applied in a demonstration with real opponents is referred to as a Bunkai. The Bunkai shows how every stance and movement is used. Bunkai is a useful tool to understand a kata.

To attain a formal rank the karateka must demonstrate competent performance of specific required kata for that level. The Japanese terminology for grades or ranks is commonly used. Requirements for examinations vary among schools.

[edit]Kumite

Main article: Kumite

Sparring in Karate is called kumite (組手:くみて). It literally means “meeting of hands.” Kumite is practiced both as a sport and as self-defense training.

Levels of physical contact during sparring vary considerably. Full contact karate has several variants. Knockdown karate (such as Kyokushin) uses full power techniques to bring an opponent to the ground. In Kickboxing variants ( for example K-1), the preferred win is by knockout. Sparring in armour (bogu kumite) allows full power techniques with some safety. Sport kumite in many international competition under the World Karate Federation is free or structured with light contact or semi contact and points are awarded by a referee.

In structured kumite (Yakusoku – prearranged), two participants perform a choreographed series of techniques with one striking while the other blocks. The form ends with one devastating technique (Hito Tsuki).

In free sparring (Jiyu Kumite), the two participants have a free choice of scoring techniques. The allowed techniques and contact level are primarily determined by sport or style organization policy, but might be modified according to the age, rank and sex of the participants. Depending upon style, take-downs, sweeps and in some rare cases even time-limited grappling on the ground are also allowed.

Free sparring is performed in a marked or closed area. The bout runs for a fixed time (2 to 3 minutes.) The time can run continuously (Iri Kume) or be stopped for referee judgment. In light contact or semi contact kumite, points are awarded based on the criteria: good form, sporting attitude, vigorous application, awareness/zanshin, good timing and correct distance. In full contact karate kumite, points are based on the results of the impact, rather than the formal appearance of the scoring technique.

[edit]Dojo Kun

Main article: Dojo kun

In the bushidō tradition dojo kun is a set of guidelines for karateka to follow. These guidelines apply both in the dojo (training hall) and in everyday life.

[edit]Conditioning

Okinawan karate uses supplementary training known as hojo undo. This utilizes simple equipment made of wood and stone. The makiwara is a striking post. The nigiri game is a large jar used for developing grip strength. These supplementary exercises are designed to increase strength,stamina, speed, and muscle coordination.[24] Sport Karate emphasises aerobic exercise, anaerobic exercise, power, agility, flexibility, and stress management.[25] All practices vary depending upon the school and the teacher.

[edit]Sport

Gichin Funakoshi (船越 義珍) said, “There are no contests in karate.”[26] In pre–World War II Okinawa, kumite was not part of karate training.[27] Shigeru Egami relates that, in 1940, some karateka were ousted from their dojo because they adopted sparring after having learned it in Tokyo.[28]

Karate is divided into style organizations. These organizations sometimes cooperate in non-style specific sport karate organizations or federations. Examples of sport organizations are AAKF/ITKF, AOK, TKL, AKA, WKF, NWUKO, WUKF and WKC.[29] Organizations hold competitions (tournaments) from local to international level. Tournaments are designed to match members of opposing schools or styles against one another in kata, sparring and weapons demonstration. They are often separated by age, rank and sex with potentially different rules or standards based on these factors. The tournament may be exclusively for members of a particular style (closed) or one in which any martial artist from any style may participate within the rules of the tournament (open).

The World Karate Federation (WKF) is the largest sport karate organization and is recognized by the International Olympic Committee (IOC) as being responsible for karate competition in the Olympic games.[30] The WKF has developed common rules governing all styles. The national WKF organizations coordinate with their respective National Olympic Committees.

Karate does not have 2012 Olympic status. In the 117th IOC Session (July 2005), karate received more than half of the votes, but not the two-thirds majority needed to become an official Olympic sport.

WKF karate competition has two disciplines: sparring (kumite) and forms (kata). Competitors may enter either as individuals or as part of a team. Evaluation for kata and kobudō is performed by a panel of judges, whereas sparring is judged by a head referee, usually with assistant referees at the side of the sparring area. Sparring matches are typically divided by weight, age, gender, and experience.

WKF only allows membership through one national organization/federation per country to which clubs may join. The World Union of Karate-do Federations (WUKF)[31] offers different styles and federations a world body they may join, without having to compromise their style or size. The WUKF accepts more than one federation or association per country.

Sport organizations use different competition rule systems. Light contact rules are used by the WKF, WUKO, IASK and WKC. Full contact karate rules used by Kyokushinkai, Seidokaikan and other organizations. Bogu kumite (full contact with protective shielding of targets) rules are used in the World Koshiki Karate-Do Federation organization.[32] Shinkaratedo Federation use boxing gloves.[33] Within the United States, rules may be under the jurisdiction of state sports authorities, such as the boxing commission.

Karatekas wearing different coloured belts

[edit]Rank

See also: Kyū

In 1924 Gichin Funakoshi, founder of Shotokan Karate, adopted the Dan system from the judo founder Jigoro Kano[34] using a rank scheme with a limited set of belt colors. Other Okinawan teachers also adopted this practice. In the Kyū/Dan system the beginner grades start with a higher numbered kyū (e.g., 10th Kyū or Jukyū) and progress toward a lower numbered kyū. The Dan progression continues from 1st Dan (Shodan, or ‘beginning dan’) to the higher dan grades. Kyū-grade karateka are referred to as “color belt” or mudansha (“ones without dan/rank”). Dan-grade karateka are referred to as yudansha (holders of dan/rank). Yudansha typically wear a black belt. Requirements of rank differ among styles, organizations, and schools. Kyū ranks stress stance, balance, and coordination. Speed and power are added at higher grades.

A young student graduates up a rank in belt in front of his dojo.

Minimum age and time in rank are factors affecting promotion. Testing consists of demonstration of techniques before a panel of examiners. This will vary by school, but testing may include everything learned at that point, or just new information. The demonstration is an application for new rank (shinsa) and may include kata, bunkai, self-defense, routines, tameshiwari (breaking), and/or kumite (sparring).

[edit]Dishonest practice

Due to the popularity of martial arts, both in mass media and reality, a large number of disreputable, fraudulent, or misguided teachers and schools have arisen, approximately over the last 40 years. Commonly referred to as a “McDojo”[35] or a “Black Belt Mill,” these schools are commonly headed by martial artists of either dubious skill or business ethics.

[edit]Philosophy

Gichin Funakoshi interpreted the “kara” of Karate-dō to mean “to purge oneself of selfish and evil thoughts. For only with a clear mind and conscience can the practitioner understand the knowledge which he receives.” Funakoshi believed that one should be “inwardly humble and outwardly gentle.” Only by behaving humbly can one be open to Karate’s many lessons. This is done by listening and being receptive to criticism. He considered courtesy of prime importance. He said that “Karate is properly applied only in those rare situations in which one really must either down another or be downed by him.” Funakoshi did not consider it unusual for a devotee to use Karate in a real physical confrontation no more than perhaps once in a lifetime. He stated that Karate practitioners must “never be easily drawn into a fight.” It is understood that one blow from a real expert could mean death. It is clear that those who misuse what they have learned bring dishonor upon themselves. He promoted the character trait of personal conviction. In “time of grave public crisis, one must have the courage … to face a million and one opponents.” He taught that indecisiveness is a weakness.[36]

[edit]Etymology

Karate was originally written as “Chinese hand” (唐手 literally “Tang dynasty hand”) in kanji. It was later changed to a homophone meaning empty hand (空手). The original use of the word “karate” in print is attributed to Ankō Itosu; he wrote it as “唐手”. The Tang Dynasty of China ended in AD 907, but the kanji representing it remains in use in Japanese language referring to China generally, in such words as “唐人街” meaning Chinatown. Thus the word “karate” was originally a way of expressing “martial art from China.”

Since there are no written records it is not known definitely whether the kara in karate was originally written with the character 唐 meaning China or the character 空 meaning empty. During the time when admiration for China and things Chinese was at its height in the Ryūkyūs it was the custom to use the former character when referring to things of fine quality. Influenced by this practice, in recent times karate has begun to be written with the character 唐 to give it a sense of class or elegance.
—Gichin Funakoshi[37]

The first documented use of a homophone of the logogram pronounced kara by replacing the Chinese character meaning “Tang Dynasty” with the character meaning “empty” took place in Karate Kumite written in August 1905 by Chōmo Hanashiro (1869–1945). Sino-Japanese relations have never been very good, and especially at the time of the Japanese invasion of Manchuria, referring to the Chinese origins of karate was considered politically incorrect.[38]

In 1933, the Okinawan art of karate was recognized as a Japanese martial art by the Japanese Martial Arts Committee known as the “Butoku Kai”. Until 1935, “karate” was written as “唐手” (Chinese hand). But in 1935, the masters of the various styles of Okinawan karate conferred to decide a new name for their art. They decided to call their art “karate” written in Japanese characters as “空手” (empty hand).[16]

Another nominal development is the addition of dō (道:どう) to the end of the word karate. Dō is a suffix having numerous meanings including road, path, route, and way. It is used in many martial arts that survived Japan’s transition from feudal culture to modern times. It implies that these arts are not just fighting systems but contain spiritual elements when promoted as disciplines. In this context dō is usually translated as “the way of ___”. Examples include aikido, judo, kyudo, and kendo. Thus karatedō is more than just empty hand techniques. It is “The Way Of The Empty Hand”.

[edit]Karate and its influence outside Japan

[edit]Canada

Karate began in Canada in the 1930s and 1940s as Japanese people immigrated to the country. Karate was practised quietly without a large amount of organization. During the Second World War, many Japanese-Canadian families were moved to the interior of British Columbia. Masaru Shintani, at the age of 13, began to study Shorin-Ryu karate in the Japanese camp under Kitigawa. In 1956 after 9 years of training with Kitigawa, Shintani travelled to Japan and met Hironori Otsuka (Wado Ryu). In 1958 Otsuka invited Shintani to join his organization Wado Kai, and in 1969 he asked Shintani to officially call his style Wado.[39]

In Canada during this same time, karate was also introduced by Masami Tsuruoka who had studied in Japan in the 1940s under Tsuyoshi Chitose.[40] In 1954 Tsuruoka initiated the first karate competition in Canada and laid the foundation for the National Karate Association.[40]

In the late 1950s Shintani moved to Ontario and began teaching karate and judo at the Japanese Cultural Centre in Hamilton. In 1966 he began (with Otsuka’s endorsement) the Shintani Wado Kai Karate Federation. During the 1970s Otsuka appointed Shintani the Supreme Instructor of Wado Kai in North America. In 1979, Otsuka publicly promoted Shintani to hachidan (8th dan) and privately gave him a kudan certificate (9th dan), which was revealed by Shintani in 1995. Shintani and Otsuka visited each other in Japan and Canada several times, the last time in 1980 two years prior to Otsuka’s death. Shintani died May 7, 2000.[39]

[edit]Korea

See also: Korea under Japanese rule

Due to past conflict between Korea and Japan, most notably during the Japanese occupation in the early 20th century, the influence of karate in Korea is a contentious issue. From 1910 until 1945, Korea was annexed to the Japanese Empire. It was during this time that many of the Korean martial arts masters of the 20th century were exposed to Japanese karate. After regaining independence from Japan, many Korean martial arts schools that opened up in the 1940s and 50’s were founded by masters who had trained in karate in Japan as part of their martial arts training.

Won Kuk Lee, a Korean student of Funakoshi founded the first martial arts school after Japanese Occupation of Korea in 1944-5 called Chung Do Kwan. Having studied under Gichin Funakoshi at Chuo University, Lee had incorporated taekkyon, kungfu and karate in the martial art that he taught which he called “Tang Soo Do”, the Korean transliteration of the Chinese characters for “Way of Chinese Hand” (唐手道).[41] Chung Do Kwan was first of the various martial arts schools that opened in Korea following the period of Japanese Occupation. In the mid-1950s the martial arts school were unified under President Rhee Syngman’s order and became taekwondo under the leadership of Choi Hong Hi and a committee of Korean masters. Choi, a significant figure in taekwondo history, had also studied karate under Funakoshi Gichin. Karate also provided an important comparative model for the early founders of taekwondo in the formalization of their art including kata and the belt rank system. Original taekwondo hyung were identical to karate kata. Eventually original Korean forms (poomse, hyung) were developed by individual schools and associations. Although WTF (Olympic) and ITF forms are prevalent throughout the taekwondo world, there are still karate, tang soo do, schools where Japanese kihon and kata are regularly practiced as they were originally conveyed to Won Kuk Lee and his contemporaries from Funakoshi.

[edit]Soviet Union

Karate appeared in the Soviet Union in the mid-1960s, during Nikita Khrushchev’s policy of improved international relations. The first Shotokan clubs were opened in Moscow’s universities.[42] In 1973, however, the government banned karate—together with all other foreign martial arts—endorsing only the Soviet martial art of sambo. Failing to suppress these uncontrolled groups, the USSR’s Sport Committee formed the Karate Federation of USSR in December 1978.[42] On 17 May 1984, the Soviet Karate Federation was disbanded and all karate became illegal again. In 1989, karate practice became legal again, but under strict government regulations, only after the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991 did independent karate schools resume functioning, and so federations were formed and national tournaments in authentic styles began.[43]

[edit]United States

After World War II, members of the US military learned karate in Okinawa or Japan and then opened schools in the USA. In 1945 Robert Trias opened the first dojo in the United States in Phoenix, Arizona, a Shuri-ryū karate dojo. In the 1950s, Edward Kaloudis, William Dometrich (Chitō-ryū), Ed Parker (Kenpo), Cecil Patterson (Wadō-ryū), Gordon Doversola (Okinawa-te), Louis Kowlowski, Don Nagle (Isshin-ryū), George Mattson (Uechi-ryū), Paul Arel (Sankata, Kyokushin, and Kokondo) and Peter Urban (Gōjū-kai) all began instructing in the US.

Tsutomu Ohshima began studying karate while a student at Waseda University, beginning in 1948, and became captain of the university’s karate club in 1952. He trained under Shotokan’s founder, Gichin Funakoshi, until 1953. Funakoshi personally awarded Ohshima his sandan (3rd degree black belt) rank in 1952. In 1957 Ohshima received his godan (fifth degree black belt), the highest rank awarded by Funakoshi. This remains the highest rank in SKA. In 1952, Ohshima formalized the judging system used in modern karate tournaments. However, he cautions students that tournaments should not be viewed as an expression of true karate itself.

Ohshima left Japan in 1955 to continue his studies at UCLA. He led his first U.S. practice in 1956 and founded the first university karate club in the United States at Caltech in 1957. In 1959 he founded the Southern California Karate Association (SCKA), as additional Shotokan dojos opened. The organization was renamed Shotokan Karate of America in 1969.

In the 1960s, Jay Trombley (Gōjū-ryū), Anthony Mirakian (Gōjū-ryū), Steve Armstrong, Bruce Terrill, Richard Kim (Shorinji-ryū), Teruyuki Okazaki (Shotokan), John Pachivas, Allen Steen, Sea Oh Choi (Hapkido), Gosei Yamaguchi (Gōjū-ryū), Mike Foster (Chito-ryu/Yoshukai) and J. Pat Burleson all began teaching martial arts around the country.[44]

In 1961 Hidetaka Nishiyama, a co-founder of the JKA and student of Gichin Funakoshi, began teaching in the United States, founding afterwards the International Traditional Karate Federation (ITKF). Takayuki Mikami were sent to New Orleans by the JKA in 1963.

In 1964, Takayuki Kubota, founder of Gosoku-ryū, relocated the International Karate Association from Tokyo to California.

Seido Karate was founded by Tadashi Nakamura

In 1970 Paul Arel founded Kokondo Karate which is a sister style of Jukido Jujitsu developed in 1959. Kokondo synthesized techniques and kata from Arel’s previous experience in Isshin Ryu, Sankata & Kyokushin Karate.

[edit]Europe

In the 1950s and 1960s, several Japanese karate masters began to teach the art in Europe, but it wasn’t until 1965 that the J.K.A. ( Japan Karate Association) sent in Europe four well-trained young Karate instructors: Taiji Kase, Keinosuke Enoeda, Hirokazu Kanazawa and Hiroshi Shirai. Kase went to France, Enoeada to England and Shirai in Italy. These Masters maintained always a strong link between them, the JKA and the others JKA masters in the world, especially Hidetaka Nishiyama in USA.

[edit]United Kingdom

In 1965, Tatsuo Suzuki began teaching Wadō-ryū in London. In 1966, members of the former British Karate Federation established the Karate Union of Great Britain (KUGB) under Hirokazu Kanazawa as chief instructor[45] and affiliated to JKA. Keinosuke Enoeda came to England at the same time as Kanazawa, teaching at a dojo in Liverpool. Kanazawa left the UK after 3 years and Enoeda took over. After Enoeda’s death in 2003, the KUGB elected Andy Sherry as Chief Instructor. Shortly after this, a new association split off from KUGB, JKA England. An earlier significant split from the KUGB took place in 1991 when a group led by KUGB senior instructor Steve Cattle formed the English Shotokan Academy (ESA). The aim of this group was to follow the teachings of Taiji Kase, formerly the JKA chief instructor in Europe, who along with Hiroshi Shirai created the World Shotokan Karate-do Academy (WKSA), in 1989 in order to pursue the teaching of “Budo” karate as opposed to what he viewed as “sport karate”. Kase sought to return the practice of Shotokan Karate to its martial roots, reintroducing amongst other things open hand and throwing techniques that had been side lined as the result of competition rules introduced by the JKA. Both the ESA and the WKSA (renamed the Kase-Ha Shotokan-Ryu Karate-do Academy (KSKA) after Kase’s death in 2004) continue following this path today. In 1975 Great Britain became the first team ever to take the World male team title from Japan after being defeated the previous year in the final.

[edit]Italy

Hiroshi Shirai, one of the original instructors sent by the J.K.A. to Europe along with Kase, Enoeda and Kanazawa, moved to Italy in 1965 and quickly established a Shotokan enclave that spawned several instructors who in their turn soon spread the style all over the country. By 1970 Shotokan karate was the most spread martial art in Italy apart from Judo. Other styles such as Wado Ryu, Goju Ryu and Shito Ryu, although present and well established in Italy, were never able to break the monopoly of Shotokan. As of 2012, Shirai still teaches daily in Milan, and has his own Federation. Shotokan schools in Italy have always been very litigious and divided, therefore federations have been born and been closed (or transformed) several times in the last 40 years. Today there are at least 7 major Shotokan federations, differing in policy and statute rather than techniques, and some minor ones, along with federeations of other karate styles, the last of which to be created being the Kyokushin federation of Italy. There is a karate school or dojo in virtually every single municipality and town in Italy, the majority of which use school gyms as their primary venue. The most widely known senior masters of Italian karate today are Carlo Fugazza, Enzo Montanari, Nino Tammaccaro, Roberto Fassi, Ennio Falsoni, all of them original Shirai pupils from the mid-1960s.

[edit]France

France Shotokan Karate was created in 1964 by Tsutomu Ohshima. It is affiliated with another of his organizations, Shotokan Karate of America (SKA). However, in 1965 Taiji Kase came from Japan along with Enoeda and Shirai, who went to England and Italy respectively, and karate came under the influence of the JKA.

[edit]Film and popular culture in the West

Karate spread rapidly in the West through popular culture. In 1950s popular fiction, karate was at times described to readers in near-mythical terms, and it was credible to show Western experts of unarmed combat as unaware of Eastern martial arts of this kind.[46] By the 1970s, martial arts films had formed a mainstream genre that propelled karate and other Asian martial arts into mass popularity.[47]

  • The Karate Kid (1984) and its sequels The Karate Kid, Part II (1986), The Karate Kid, Part III (1989) and The Next Karate Kid (1994) are films relating the fictional story of an American adolescent’s introduction into karate.[48][49]
  • Karate Kommandos, an animated children’s show, with Chuck Norris himself appearing to reveal the episode and the moral contained in the episode.
Film stars and their styles
Practitioner Fighting style
Sonny Chiba Kyokushin[50]
Hiroyuki Sanada Kyokushin[51]
Sean Connery Kyokushin[52]
Joe Lewis Shorin-ryu[53]
Fumio Demura Shitō-ryū[54]
Takayuki Kubota Gosoku-ryu[55]
Dolph Lundgren Kyokushin[56][57]
Richard Norton Gōjū-ryu[58]
Wesley Snipes Shotokan[59]
Jean-Claude Van Damme Shotokan[60]
Cynthia Luster Gōjū-ryu[61]
Michael Jai White Shotokan[62]
Tadashi Yamashita Shorin-ryu[63]

Many other film stars such as Bruce Lee, Jackie Chan, Chuck Norris, Phillip Rhee, Don “The Dragon” Wilson come from a range of other martial arts.

[edit]Karate in mixed martial arts

Main article: Mixed martial arts#Common disciplines

Karate, although not widely used in mixed martial arts, has been effective for some MMA practitioners.[47][64] Various styles of karate are practiced: Chuck Liddell is known for Koei-Kan striking,[65] Lyoto Machida practices Shotokan[66] and Georges St-Pierre trains Kyokushin.[67]

[edit]See also

  • [edit]ReferencesKarate World Championships
  • Karate at the World Games
  • Comparison of karate styles
  • Karate kata
  • Japanese martial arts
  • Okinawan martial arts
  • Full contact karate
  1. ^ a b Higaonna, Morio (1985). Traditional Karatedo Vol. 1 Fundamental Techniques. p. 17. ISBN 0-87040-595-0.
  2. ^ a b c History of Okinawan Karate
  3. ^ Bishop, Mark (1989). Okinawan Karate. pp. 153–166. ISBN 0-7136-5666-2. Chapter 9 covers Motobu-ryu and Bugeikan, two ‘ti’ styles with grappling and vital point striking techniques. Page 165, Seitoku Higa: “Use pressure on vital points, wrist locks, grappling, strikes and kicks in a gentle manner to neutralize an attack.”
  4. ^ Donn F. Draeger (1974). Modern Bujutsu & Budo. Weatherhill, New York & Tokyo. Page 125.
  5. ^ “唐手研究会、次いで空手部の創立”. Keio Univ. Karate Team. Retrieved 2010-03-14.[dead link](Japanese)
  6. ^ Miyagi, Chojun (1993) [1934]. McCarthy, Patrick. ed. Karate-doh Gaisetsu [An Outline of Karate-Do]. p. 9. ISBN 4-900613-05-3.
  7. ^ Draeger & Smith (1969). Comprehensive Asian Fighting Arts. p. 60. ISBN 978-0-87011-436-6.
  8. ^ Bishop, Mark (1999). Okinawan Karate Second Edition. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-8048-3205-2.
  9. ^ Dr. Gary J. Krug: the Feet of the Master: Three Stages in the Appropriation of Okinawan Karate Into Anglo-American Culture
  10. ^ Shigeru, Egami (1976). The Heart of Karate-Do. p. 13. ISBN 0-87011-816-1.
  11. ^ Nagamine, Shoshin (1976). Okinawan Karate-do. p. 47. ISBN 978-0-8048-2110-0.
  12. ^ IOC Fact Sheet 2012
  13. ^ Web Japan
  14. ^ WKF claims 100 million practitioners
  15. ^ Bishop, Mark (1989). Okinawan Karate. p. 154. ISBN 0-7136-5666-2. Motobu-ryū & Seikichi Uehara
  16. ^ a b Higaonna, Morio (1985). Traditional Karatedo Vol. 1 Fundamental Techniques. p. 19. ISBN 0-87040-595-0.
  17. ^ Bishop, Mark (1989). Okinawan Karate. p. 28. ISBN 0-7136-5666-2. For example Chōjun Miyagi adapted Rokkushu of White Crane into Tenshō
  18. ^ Patrick McCarthy, footnote #4
  19. ^ Kanbun Uechi history
  20. ^ Hokama, Tetsuhiro (2005). 100 Masters of Okinawan Karate. Okinawa: Ozata Print. p. 28. asda dasd
  21. ^ Competition Rules. Kata and Kumite, World Karate Federation, page 25
  22. ^ WUKF World Union of Karate-do Federations
  23. ^ International Traditional Karate Federation (ITKF)
  24. ^ Higaonna, Morio (1985). Traditional Karatedo Vol. 1 Fundamental Techniques. p. 67. ISBN 0-87040-595-0.
  25. ^ Mitchell, David (1991). Winning Karate Competition. pp. 25. ISBN 0-7136-3402-2.
  26. ^ Shigeru, Egami (1976). The Heart of Karatedo. p. 111. ISBN 0-87011-816-1.
  27. ^ Higaonna, Morio (1990). Traditional Karatedo Vol. 4 Applications of the Kata. p. 136. ISBN [[Special:BookSources/0-87040-848-9|0-87040-848-9]].
  28. ^ Shigeru, Egami (1976). The Heart of Karatedo. p. 113. ISBN 0-87011-816-1.
  29. ^ World Karate Confederation
  30. ^ olympic.org: Final Report on the XXVIIth Olympiad
  31. ^ WUKF – World Union of Karate-Do Federations
  32. ^ World Koshiki Karatedo Federation
  33. ^ Shinkaratedo Renmei
  34. ^ Hokama, Tetsuhiro (2005). 100 Masters of Okinawan Karate. Okinawa: Ozata Print. p. 20.
  35. ^ [1] A Chronological History of the Martial Arts: Douglas Coupland’s novel Generation X, which defined McJob as “a low-pay, low prestige, low-dignity, low benefit, no-future job in the service sector,” appears in paperback, and within weeks, the term “McDojo” appeared at rec.martial-arts as a description of franchise martial art schools run by people with more ego than talent.
  36. ^ Funakoshi, Gichin. “Karate-dō Kyohan – The Master Text” Tokyo. Kodansha International; 1973.
  37. ^ Funakoshi, Gishin (1988). Karate-do Nyumon. Japan. p. 24. ISBN 4-7700-1891-6. Retrieved 2010-07-15.
  38. ^ What’s In A Name? How the meaning of the term karate has changed, Levitz, Maurey (1998), New Paltz Karate Academy, Inc.
  39. ^ a b Robert, T. (2006). “no title given”. Journal of Asian Martial Arts (this issue is not available as a back issue) 15 (4).
  40. ^ a b “Karate”. The Canadian Encyclopedia – Historica-Dominion. 2010. Retrieved 2010-07-20.
  41. ^ Interview with Lee, Won Kyuk. Accademia Italiana Tang Su Do
  42. ^ a b karate-shotokan.net
  43. ^ “History of Shotokan (Russian)”. Retrieved 2007-05-15.
  44. ^ The Original Martial Arts Encyclopedia, John Corcoran and Emil Farkas, pgs. 170–197
  45. ^ International Association of Shotokan Karate (IASK)
  46. ^ For example, Ian Fleming’s book Goldfinger (1959, p.91–95) describes the protagonist James Bond, an expert in unarmed combat, as utterly ignorant of Karate and its demonstrations, and describes the Korean ‘Oddjob’ in these terms: Goldfinger said, “Have you ever heard of Karate? No? Well that man is one of the three in the world who have achieved the Black Belt in Karate. Karate is a branch of judo, but it is to judo what aspandau is to a catapult…”. Such a description in a popular novel assumed and relied upon Karate being almost unknown in the West.
  47. ^ a b Schneiderman, R. M. (2009-05-23). “Contender Shores Up Karate’s Reputation Among U.F.C. Fans”. The New York Times. Retrieved 2010-01-30.
  48. ^ “The Karate Generation”. Newsweek. 2010-02-18.
  49. ^ “Jaden Smith Shines in The Karate Kid”. Newsweek. 2010-06-10.
  50. ^ “International Karate Organization KYOKUSHINKAIKAN Domestic Black Belt List As of Oct.2000”. Kyokushin karate sōkan : shin seishin shugi eno sōseiki e (Aikēōshuppanjigyōkyoku): pp.62–64. 2001. ISBN 4-8164-1250-6.
  51. ^ Kungfu Magazine: E-Zine Feature Article. Ezine.kungfumagazine.com. Retrieved on 2011-11-21.
  52. ^ Rogers, Ron. “Hanshi’s Corner 1106”. Midori Yama Budokai. Retrieved 20 August 2011.
  53. ^ Shorin-Ryu karate Joe Lewis, The World’s Greatest Karate Fighter Of All Time
  54. ^ Japan Karate-Do Genbu-Kai International: Sensei Demura at a glance … (c. 2007). Retrieved on March 3, 2010.
  55. ^ karate masters
  56. ^ “Action Star Dolph Lundgren Talks Acting …”. Bodybuilding.com. Retrieved 2010-09-09.
  57. ^ “Celebrity Fitness—Dolph Lundgren”. Inside Kung Fu. Retrieved 2010-11-15.
  58. ^ Black Belt Magazine March, 1994, p. 24
  59. ^ “Wesley Snipes: Action man courts a new beginning”. Independent (London). 2010-06-04. Retrieved 2010-06-10.
  60. ^ “Why is he famous?”. ASK MEN. Retrieved 2010-06-15.
  61. ^ HK cinemagic entry
  62. ^ “Talking With…Michael Jai White”. GiantLife. Retrieved 2010-06-16.
  63. ^ “Martial Arts Biography – Tadashi Yamashita”. usadojo.com. Retrieved 2008-03-10.
  64. ^ “Lyoto Machida and the Revenge of Karate”. Sherdog. Retrieved 2010-02-13.
  65. ^ Chuck Liddell – Biography and Profile of Chuck Liddell. Martialarts.about.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-18.
  66. ^ Mma & Ufc. Martialarts.about.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-18.
  67. ^ Wickert, Marc. “Montreal’s MMA Warrior.”. Knucklepit.com. Retrieved 6 July 2007.

 

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Judo 柔

 
File:Jigoro Kano and Kyuzo Mifune.jpg
Kyuzo Mifune (l) and Jigoro Kano (r).
Focus Grappling
Hardness Full contact
Country of origin Japan Japan
Creator Jigoro Kano
Famous practitioners Tsunejiro Tomita, Theodore Roosevelt, Shiro Saigo, Mitsuo Maeda, Kyuzo Mifune, Keiko Fukuda, Masahiko Kimura, Gene LeBell, Gokor Chivichyan, Anton Geesink, Yasuhiro Yamashita,Neil Adams, Hidehiko Yoshida,David Douillet, Kosei Inoue,Teddy Riner, Ann Maria Rousey DeMars, Jimmy Pedro, Vladimir Putin, Ronda Rousey
Parenthood Various koryū Jujutsu schools, principally Tenjin Shin’yō-ryūand Kito-ryū
Descendant arts Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu, Kosen Judo,Sambo, Nippon Kempo
Olympic sport Since 1964[1] (men) and 1992[2](women)
Official website International Judo Federation (IJF)
The Kodokan
This article contains Japanesetext. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbolsinstead of kanji and kana.

Judo (柔道 jūdō?, meaning “gentle way”) is a modern martial art, combat and Olympic sport created in Japan in 1882 by Jigoro Kano. Its most prominent feature is its competitive element, where the object is to either throw or takedown an opponent to the ground, immobilize or otherwise subdue an opponent with a grappling maneuver, or force an opponent to submit by joint locking or by executing a strangle hold or choke. Strikes and thrusts by hands and feet as well as weapons defenses are a part of judo, but only in pre-arranged forms (kata) and are not allowed in judo competition or free practice (randori).

The philosophy and subsequent pedagogy developed for judo became the model for other modern Japanese martial arts that developed from koryū (古流?, traditional schools). The worldwide spread of judo has led to the development of a number of offshoots such as Sambo and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu. Judo practitioners are called judoka.

Contents

[show]

[edit]History and philosophy

[edit]Early life of the founder

Jigoro Kano

The early history of judo is inseparable from its founder, Japanese polymath and educator Jigoro Kano (嘉納 治五郎 Kanō Jigorō?, 1860–1938), born Shinnosuke Kano (嘉納 新之助 Kanō Shinnosuke?). Kano was born into a relatively affluent family. His father, Jirosaku, was the second son of the head priest of the Shinto Hiyoshi shrine in Shiga Prefecture. He married Sadako Kano, daughter of the owner of Kiku-Masamune sake brewing company and was adopted by the family, changing his name to Kano, and ultimately became an official in the Bakufu government.[3]

Jigoro Kano had an academic upbringing and, from the age of seven, he studied English, Japanese calligraphy (書道 shodō?) and the Four Confucian Texts (四書 Shisho?) under a number of tutors.[4] When he was fourteen, Kano began boarding at an English-medium school, Ikuei-Gijuku in Shiba, Tokyo. The culture of bullying endemic at this school was the catalyst that caused Kano to seek out a Jujutsu (柔術 Jūjutsu?) dojo (道場 dōjō?, training place) at which to train.[4]

Early attempts to find a jujutsu teacher who was willing to take him on met with little success. With the fall of the Tokugawa shogunate in the Meiji Restoration of 1868, jujutsu had become unfashionable in an increasingly westernised Japan. Many of those who had once taught the art had been forced out of teaching or become so disillusioned with it that they had simply given up. Nakai Umenari, an acquaintance of Kanō’s father and a former soldier, agreed to show him kata, but not to teach him. The caretaker of his father’s second house, Katagiri Ryuji, also knew jujutsu, but would not teach it as he believed it was no longer of practical use. Another frequent visitor to Kanō’s father’s house, Imai Genshiro of Kyūshin-ryū (扱心流?)school of jujutsu, also refused.[5] Several years passed before he finally found a willing teacher.[5]

In 1877, as a student at the Tokyo-Kaisei school (soon to become part of the newly-founded Tokyo Imperial University), Kano learned that many jujutsu teachers had been forced to pursue alternative careers, frequently opening Seikotsu-in (整骨院?, traditional osteopathy practices).[6] After inquiring at a number of these, Kano was referred to Fukuda Hachinosuke (c.1828–1880),[7] a teacher of the Tenjin Shin’yō-ryū (天神真楊流?) of jujutsu, who had a small nine mat dojo where he taught five students.[8] Fukuda is said to have emphasized technique over formal exercise, sowing the seeds of Kano’s emphasis on randori (乱取り randori?, free practice) in Judo.

On Fukuda’s death in 1880, Kano, who had become his keenest and most able student in both randori and kata (形 kata?, pre-arranged forms), was given the densho (伝書?, scrolls) of the Fukuda dojo.[9] Kano chose to continue his studies at another Tenjin Shin’yō-ryū school, that of Iso Masatomo (c.1820–1881). Iso placed more emphasis on the practice of kata, and entrusted randori instruction to assistants, increasingly to Kano.[10] Iso died in June 1881 and Kano went on to study at the dojo of Iikubo Tsunetoshi (1835–1889) of Kitō-ryū (起倒流?).[11] Like Fukuda, Iikubo placed much emphasis on randori, with Kitō-ryū having a greater focus on nage-waza (投げ技?, throwing techniques).[12]

[edit]Founding of the Kodokan

Eisho-ji temple, Tokyo.

In February 1882, Kano founded a school and dojo at the Eisho-ji (永昌寺?), a Buddhist temple in what was then the Shitaya ward of Tokyo (now the Higashi Ueno district of Taitō ward).[13] Iikubo, Kano’s Kitō-ryū instructor, attended the dojo three days a week to help teach and, although two years would pass before the temple would be called by the name Kodokan (講道館 Kōdōkan?, “place for expounding the way”), and Kano had not yet received his Menkyo (免許?, certificate of mastery)in Kitō-ryū, this is now regarded as the Kodokan founding.

The Eisho-ji dojo was a relatively small affair, consisting of a twelve mat training area. Kano took in resident and non-resident students, the first two being Tsunejiro Tomita and Shiro Saigo.[14] In August, the following year, the pair were grantedshodan (初段?, first rank) grades, the first that had been awarded in any martial art.[15]

[edit]Judo versus Jujutsu

“Judo” (柔道jūdō?), written inKanji.

Central to Kano’s vision for Judo were the principles of seiryoku zen’yō (精力善用?, maximum efficiency, minimum effort) and jita kyōei (自他共栄?, mutual welfare and benefit). He illustrated the application of seiryoku zen’yō with the concept of jū yoku gō o seisu (柔よく剛を制す?, gentleness controls hardness):

In short, resisting a more powerful opponent will result in your defeat, whilst adjusting to and evading your opponent’s attack will cause him to lose his balance, his power will be reduced, and you will defeat him. This can apply whatever the relative values of power, thus making it possible for weaker opponents to beat significantly stronger ones. This is the theory of ju yoku go o seisu.[16]

Kano realised that seiryoku zen’yō, initially conceived as a Jujutsu concept, had a wider philosophical application. Coupled with the Confucianist-influenced jita kyōei, the wider application shaped the development of Judo from a martial art (武術 bujutsu?) to a martial way (武道 budō?). Kano rejected techniques that did not conform to these principles and emphasised the importance of efficiency in the execution of techniques. He was convinced that practice of Jujutsu while conforming to these ideals was a route to self-improvement and the betterment of society in general.[17] He was, however, acutely conscious of the Japanese public’s negative perception of Jujutsu:

At the time a few bujitsu (martial arts) experts still existed but bujitsu was almost abandoned by the nation at large. Even if I wanted to teach jujitsu most people had now stopped thinking about it. So I thought it better to teach under a different name principally because my objectives were much wider than jujitsu.[18]

Kano believed that “Jūjutsu” was insufficient to describe his art: although Jutsu (術?) means “art” or “means”, it implies a method consisting of a collection of physical techniques. Accordingly, he changed the second character to dō (道?), meaning way, road or path, which implies a more philosophical context than jutsu and has a common origin with the Chinese concept of tao. Thus Kano renamed it Judo(柔道 Jūdō?).[19]

[edit]Judo waza (techniques)

See also: Judo techniques and List of Kodokan Judo techniques

There are three basic categories of waza (技?, techniques) in Judo: nage-waza (投げ技?, throwing techniques), katame-waza (固技?, grappling techniques) and atemi-waza (当て身技?, striking techniques).[20] Judo is most known for nage-waza and katame-waza.[21]

Judo practitioners typically devote a portion of each practice session to ukemi (受け身?, break-falls), in order that nage-waza can be practiced without significant risk of injury. Several distinct types of ukemi exist, including ushiro ukemi (後ろ受身?, rear breakfalls); yoko ukemi (横受け身?, side breakfalls); mae ukemi (前受け身?, front breakfalls); and zenpo kaiten ukemi (前方回転受身?, rolling breakfalls)[22]

The person who performs a waza is known as tori (取り?, literally “taker”) and the person to whom it is performed is known as uke (受け?, literally “receiver”).[23]

[edit]Nage waza (throwing techniques)

Nage waza include all techniques in which tori attempts to throw or trip uke, usually with the aim of placing uke on his back. Each technique has three distinct stages:

  • Kuzushi (崩し?), the initial balance break;[24]
  • Tsukuri (作り?), the act of turning in and fitting into the throw;[25]
  • Kake (掛け?), the execution and completion of the throw.[25]

Nage waza are typically drilled by the use of uchi komi (内込?), repeated turning-in, taking the throw up to the point of kake.[26]

Traditionally, nage waza are further categorised into tachi-waza (立ち技?, standing techniques), throws that are performed with tori maintaining an upright position, and sutemi-waza (捨身技?, sacrifice techniques), throws in which tori sacrifices his upright position in order to throw uke.[27]

Tachi-waza are further subdivided into te-waza (手技?, hand techniques), in which tori predominantly uses his arms to throw uke; koshi-waza (腰技?, hip techniques) throws that predominantly use a lifting motion from the hips; and ashi-waza (足技?, foot and leg techniques), throws in whichtori predominantly utilises his legs.[27]

Harai goshi (払腰?, sweeping hip), akoshi-waza

Nage-waza (投げ技?)
throwing techniques		 Tachi-waza (立ち技?)
standing techniques		 Te-waza (手技?)
hand techniques
Koshi-waza (腰技?)
hip techniques
Ashi-waza (足技?)
foot and leg techniques
Sutemi-waza (捨身技?)
sacrifice techniques		 Ma-sutemi-waza (真捨身技?)
rear sacrifice techniques
Yoko-sutemi-waza (橫捨身技?)
side sacrifice techniques

[edit]Katame-waza (grappling techniques)

Katame-waza is further categorised into osaekomi-waza (押込技?, holding techniques), in which tori traps and pins uke on his back on the floor; shime-waza (絞技?, strangulation techniques), in which tori attempts to force a submission by choking or strangling uke; and kansetsu-waza (関節技?, joint techniques), in which tori attempts to submit uke by painful manipulation of his joints.[28]

A related concept is that of ne-waza (寝技?, prone techniques), in which waza are applied from a non-standing position.[29]

In competitive judo, Kansetsu-waza is currently limited to elbow joint manipulation.[30] Manipulation and locking of other joints can be found in various kata, such as Katame-no-kata and Kodokan goshin jutsu.[31]

Juji gatame (十字固?, cross lock), akansetsu-waza

Katame-waza (固技?)
grappling techniques		 Osaekomi-waza (押込技?)
holding or pinning techniques
Shime-waza (絞技?)
strangulation techniques
Kansetsu-waza (関節技?)
Joint techniques (locks)

[edit]Atemi-waza (striking techniques)

Atemi-waza are techniques in which tori disables uke with a strike to a vital point. Atemi-waza are not permitted outside of kata.[32]

[edit]Pedagogy

[edit]Randori (free practice)

Judo pedagogy emphasizes randori (乱取り?, literally “taking chaos”, but meaning “free practice”). This term covers a variety of forms of practice, and the intensity at which it is carried out varies depending on intent and the level of expertise of the participants. At one extreme, is a compliant style of randori, known as Yakusoku geiko (約束稽古?, prearranged practice), in which neither participant offers resistance to their partner’s attempts to throw. A related concept is that of Sute geiko (捨稽古?, throw-away practice), in which an experienced judoka allows himself to be thrown by his less-experienced partner.[33] At the opposite extreme from yakusoku geiko is the hard style of randori that seeks to emulate the style of Judo seen in competition. While hard randori is the cornerstone of Judo, over-emphasis of the competitive aspect is seen as undesirable by traditionalists if the intent of the randori is to “win” rather than to learn.[34]

Randori is usually limited to either tachi waza (standing techniques) or ne waza (ground work) and, when one partner is thrown in tachi waza randori, practice is resumed with both partners on their feet.[citation needed]

[edit]Kata (forms)

Jigoro Kano and Yoshiaki Yamashitaperforming Koshiki-no-kata

See also: Kata

Kata (形 kata?, Forms) are pre-arranged patterns of techniques and in judo, with the exception of the Seiryoku-Zen’yō Kokumin-Taiiku, they are all practised with a partner. Their purposes include illustrating the basic principles of judo, demonstrating the correct execution of a technique, teaching the philosophical tenets upon which judo is based, allowing for the practice of techniques that are not allowed in randori, and to preserve ancient techniques that are historically important but are no longer used in contemporary judo.[citation needed]

There are ten kata that are recognized by the Kodokan today:[35]

  • Randori-no-kata (乱取りの形?, Free practice forms), comprising two kata:
    • Nage-no-kata (投の形?, Forms of throwing) Fifteen throws, practiced both left- and right-handed, three each from the five categories of nage waza: te waza, koshi waza, ashi waza, ma sutemi waza and yoko sutemi waza.[36]
    • Katame-no-kata (固の形?, Forms of grappling or holding). Fifteen techniques in three sets of five, illustrating the three categories of katame waza: osaekomi waza, shime waza and kansetsu waza.[37]
  • Kime-no-kata (極の形?, Forms of decisiveness). Twenty techniques, illustrating the principles of defence in a combat situation, performed from kneeling and standing positions. Attacks are made unarmed and armed with a dagger and a sword. This kata utilises atemi waza, striking techniques, that are forbidden in randori.[38]
  • Kōdōkan goshinjutsu (講道館護身術?, Kodokan skills of self-defence). The most recent recognised kata, comprising twenty-one techniques of defence against attack from an unarmed assailant and one armed with a knife, stick and pistol. This kata incorporates various jujutsu techniques such as wrist locks and atemi waza.[39]
  • Jū-no-kata (柔の形?, Forms of gentleness & flexibility). Fifteen techniques, arranged in three sets of five, demonstrating the principle of Jū and its correct use in offence and defence.[40]
  • Gō-no-kata (剛の形?, Forms of force). One of the oldest kata, comprising ten forms that illustrate the efficient use of force and resistance. Now rarely practiced.[41]
  • Itsutsu-no-kata (五の形?, The five forms). An advanced kata, illustrating the principle of seiryoku zen’yō and the movements of the universe.[42] Recent research has shown that this kata, unlike what often has been claimed, was not created by Kano, but similar to Koshiki-no-kata, it was merely imported into judo after Kano slightly amended it.[43] The kata predates the creation of Kodokan and comes from Tenjin Shinyō-ryū.[44]
  • Koshiki-no-kata (古式の形?, Traditional forms). Derived from Kitō-ryū Jujutsu, this kata was originally intended to be performed wearing armour. Kano chose to preserve it as it embodied the principles of Judo.[45]
  • Seiryoku Zen’yō Kokumin Taiiku (精力善用国家体育?, Maximum-efficiency national physical education). A series of exercises designed to develop the physique for Judo.[46]
  • Joshi-goshinhō (女性護身法?, Methods of self-defence for women). An exercise completed in 1943, and of which the development was ordered by Jiro Nango, the second Kodokan president.[47]

In addition, there are a number of commonly practiced kata that are not recognised by the Kodokan. Some of the more common kata include:

  • Go-no-sen-no-kata (後の先の形?) A kata of counter techniques developed at Waseda University in Tokyo, popularised in the West by Mikonosuke Kawaishi.[48]
  • Nage-waza-ura-no-kata (投げ技裏の形?) Another kata of counter techniques, created by Kyuzo Mifune.[49]
  • Kaeshi-no-kata (返の形?, Forms of return) Yet another kata of counters, attributed to Yukio Tani[50]

[edit]Competitive Judo

[edit]History of competitive Judo

Yoshihiko Yoshimatsu attempting to throw Toshiro Daigo with an uchi mata in the final of the 1951 All-Japan Judo Championships

Contest (試合 shiai?) is a vitally important aspect of Judo. Early examples include the Kodokan Monthly Tournament (月次試合 Tsukinami shiai?) and the biannual Red and White Tournament (紅白試合 Kohaku jiai?), both of which started in 1884 and continue to the present day.[citation needed]

In 1899, Kano was asked to chair a committee of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai to draw up the first formal set of contest rules for jujutsu. These rules were intended to cover contests between different various traditional schools of jujutsu as well as practitioners of Kodokan judo. Contests were 15 minutes long and were judged on the basis of nage waza and katame waza, excluding atemi waza. Wins were by two ippons, awarded for throwing the opponent onto his back or by pinning them on their back for a “sufficient” amount of time or by submission. Submissions could be achieved via shime-waza or kansetsu-waza. Finger, toe and ankle locks were prohibited.[51] In 1900, these rules were adopted by the Kodokan with amendments made to prohibit all joint locks for kyu grades and added wrist locks to the prohibited kansetsu-waza for dan grades. It was also stated that the ratio of tachi-waza to ne-waza should be between 70% to 80% for kyu grades and 60% to 70% for dan grades.[51]

In 1916, additional rulings were brought in to further limit kansetsu waza with the prohibition of ashi garami and neck locks, as well as do jime.[52] These were further added to in 1925, in response to Kosen Judo (高專柔道 Kōsen jūdō?), which concentrated on ne waza at the expense of tachi waza. The new rules banned all remaining joint locks except those applied to the elbow and prohibited the dragging down of an opponent to enter ne waza.[citation needed]

The All-Japan Judo Championships (全日本柔道選手権大会 Zennihon jūdō senshuken taikai?) were first held in 1930 and have been held every year, with the exception of the wartime period between 1941 and 1948, and continue to be the highest profile tournament in Japan.[citation needed]

Judo’s international profile was boosted by the introduction of the World Judo Championships in 1956. The championships were initially a fairly small affair, with 31 athletes attending from 21 countries in the first year. Competitors were exclusively male until the introduction of the Women’s Championships in 1980, which took place on alternate years to the Men’s Championships. The championships were combined in 1987 to create an event that takes place annually, except for the years in which Olympic games are held. Participation has steadily increased such that, in the most recent championships in 2011, 871 competitors from 132 countries took part.[citation needed]

The first time judo was seen in the Olympic Games was in an informal demonstration hosted by Kano at the 1932 Games.[53] However, Kano was ambivalent about Judo’s potential inclusion as an Olympic sport:

I have been asked by people of various sections as to the wisdom and possibility of Judo being introduced with other games and sports at the Olympic Games. My view on the matter, at present, is rather passive. If it be the desire of other member countries, I have no objection. But I do not feel inclined to take any initiative. For one thing, Judo in reality is not a mere sport or game. I regard it as a principle of life, art and science. In fact, it is a means for personal cultural attainment. Only one of the forms of Judo training, so-called randori or free practice can be classed as a form of sport. Certainly, to some extent, the same may be said of boxing and fencing, but today they are practiced and conducted as sports. Then the Olympic Games are so strongly flavored with nationalism that it is possible to be influenced by it and to develop “Contest Judo”, a retrograde form as ju-jitsu was before the Kodokan was founded. Judo should be free as art and science from any external influences, political, national, racial, and financial or any other organized interest. And all things connected with it should be directed to its ultimate object, the “Benefit of Humanity”. Human sacrifice is a matter of ancient history.[54]

Nevertheless, Judo became an Olympic sport for men in the 1964 Games in Tokyo. The Olympic Committee initially dropped judo for the 1968 Olympics, meeting protests.[55] Dutchman Anton Geesink won the first Olympic gold medal in the open division of judo by defeating Akio Kaminagaof Japan. The women’s event was introduced at the Olympics in 1988 as a demonstration event, and an official medal event in 1992. Paralympic judo has been a Paralympic sport (for the visually impaired) since 1988; it is also one of the sports at the Special Olympics.[citation needed]

[edit]Current international contest rules

All-Japan Judo Championships, 2007 men’s final

Main article: Judo rules

The traditional rules of judo are intended to provide a basis under which to test skill in Judo, while avoiding significant risk of injury to the competitors. Additionally, the rules are also intended to enforce proper reigi (礼儀?, etiquette).[citation needed]

Penalties may be given for: passivity or preventing progress in the match; for safety infringements for example by using prohibited techniques, or for behavior that is deemed to be against the spirit of judo. Fighting must be stopped if a participant is outside the designated area on the mat.[citation needed]

[edit]Weight divisions

There are currently seven weight divisions, subject to change by governing bodies, and may be modified based on the age of the competitors:

Weight divisions
Men Under 60 kg 60–66 kg 66–73 kg 73–81 kg 81–90 kg 90–100 kg Over 100 kg
Women Under 48 kg 48–52 kg 52–57 kg 57–63 kg 63–70 kg 70–78 kg Over 78 kg

[edit]Competition scoring

A throw that places the opponent on his back with impetus and control scores an ippon (一本?), winning the contest.[56] A lesser throw, where the opponent is thrown onto his back, but with insufficient force to merit an ippon, scores a waza-ari (技あり?).[56] Two scores of waza-ari equal an ippon  (技あり合わせて一本 waza-ari awasete ippon?).[56] A throw that places the opponent onto his side scores a yuko (有効?).[56] No amount of yukos equal a waza-ari, they are only considered in the event of an otherwise tied contest.[56]

Ippon is scored in ne-waza for pinning an opponent on his back with a recognised osaekomi-waza for 25 seconds or by forcing a submission through shime-waza or kansetsu-waza.[56] A submission is signalled by tapping the mat or the opponent at least twice with the hand or foot, or by saying maitta (まいった?, I surrender).[56] A pin lasting for less than 25 seconds, but more than 20 seconds scores waza-ari and one lasting less than 20 seconds but more than 15 seconds scores a yuko.[56]

Formerly, there was an additional score that was lesser to yuko, that of Koka (効果?). This has since been removed.[citation needed]

If the scores are identical at the end of the match, the contest is resolved by the Golden Score rule. Golden Score is a sudden death situation where the clock is reset to match-time, and the first contestant to achieve any score wins. If there is no score during this period, then the winner is decided by Hantei (判定?), the majority opinion of the referee and the two corner judges.[citation needed]

[edit]Penalties

Minor rules infractions are penalised with a shido (指導?, literally “guidance”). This is treated as a warning and a single shido makes no contribution to the overall score. A second shido awards the penalised competitor’s opponent the score of a yuko and a third shido is equivalent to a waza-ari. A serious rules violation yields a hansoku make (反則負け?, literally “foul-play defeat”), resulting in disqualification of the penalised competitor. Hansoku make is also imposed for the accumulation of four shidos.[citation needed]

Formerly, there were two additional levels of penalty between shido and hansoku make: chui (注意?, literally “caution”), equivalent to a yuko and keikoku (警告?, literally “warning”) equivalent to waza-ari.[citation needed]

[edit]Representation of scores

Judo scoreboards show the number of waza-ari and yuko scores scored by each player. (A score of koka was also displayed until its use was abandoned in 2009.) Often an ippon is not represented on the scoreboard, because upon award of an ippon the match is immediately terminated. Some computerized scoreboards will briefly indicate that an ippon has been scored.[citation needed]

Scoreboards normally also show the number of penalties imposed on each player, and sometimes the number of medical visits for each. (Only two “medical” attentions are allowed for each competitor during a match—most often for minor bleeds.)[citation needed]

Electronic scoreboards also usually include timers for measuring both competition time and osaekomi time.[citation needed]

[edit]In mixed martial arts

Main article: Mixed martial arts

Several Judo practitioners have made an impact in mixed martial arts. Anderson Silva is the UFC Middleweight champion and holds a black belt in judo. Other notable Judo trained MMA fighters include former Russian national Judo championship Bronze medalist Fedor Emelianenko, UFC fighter Karo Parisyan, Olympic medalists Hidehiko Yoshida (Gold, 1992), and Ronda Rousey (Bronze, 2008).[citation needed]

Judo has been one of the primary martial arts displayed in Mixed Martial Arts (MMA) competitions since MMA’s inception.

The first official MMA fight, the Ultimate Fighting Competition (UFC), was held in 1993. It was advertised as a “no holds barred” fight. At the time, the public perception was that a larger/stronger human could dominate a smaller/weaker human. The fighters came from various martial arts or sports fighting backgrounds, including judo, karate, Jujitsu, boxing, wrestling, tae kwon do and kickboxing. They fought until the opponent was knocked out, tapped out (stopping the fight by tapping their hand), or the referee stopped the fight. The winner of the first Ultimate Fighting Championship was a small Brazilian, Royce Gracie, who used Judo/Jujitsu submissions to defeat opponents twice his size [57]

Royce Gracie is famous for his Brazilian Jujitsu, a hybrid fighting style that employs many Judo techniques.

Many MMA fights are ended by submission holds most of which derive from Judo. “Chokeholds are common in Jujitsu, judo and submission grappling, and most trainers discuss how fighter need to experience these techniques in order to learn how to resist them” [57]

“Judo resembles MMA’s grappling aspects, particularly when both fighters are on the ground. MMA fans would easily recognize judo’s submissions — a fighter might “tap out,” or concede the fight, when caught in a chokehold or an armbar” [58]

Jujitsu, Brazilian Jujitsu, and Judo all derive from one another. “For some time in Japan, Judo and Jiu-Jitsu were almost synonymous. Judo was known as Kano’s Jiu-Jitsu. Regardless, this answers the question, “why do they call it Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu and not Brazilian Judo?” Because they were essentially the same thing at the time, remember, the Gracie family was learning Jiu-Jitsu and Judo while Kano was still struggling to show the difference between the two and popularize his art. In the early 1900s there was very little difference between the two. In fact, Judo was merely a collection of Jiu-jitsu styles, whose strongest points were put together to make what then became Judo” [59]

The Japanese found judo superior to jujitsu because it involves both stand up and grappling techniques. “After a match-up between older styles of Jiu-jitsu and Judo at the Tokyo police headquarters, Judo was named the national martial art in Japan. It was the official art used by law enforcement in the late 1800’s, and continues to be popular to this day. During World War II, many U.S. soldiers were exposed to the art of Judo and brought it back to America with them. The first issue of Black Belt magazine here in America (1961), featured a sketch of a Judo throw and was a special Judo issue” [59]

Ronda Rousey, a female MMA champion, won a bronze medal in Judo at the 2008 Olympics. “Rousey eventually got an offer to try MMA and had her first professional fight last year. She has since defeated all her opponents with a judo arm lock in less than one minute and is now a champion in the combat sport” [60]

Anderson “The Spider” Silva has a black belt in judo and is the current UFC Middleweight Champion; he is undefeated in the UFC [61]

[edit]Related arts and derivatives

Kano Jigoro’s Kodokan judo is the most popular and well-known style of judo, but is not the only one. The terms judo and jujutsu were quite interchangeable in the early years, so some of these forms of judo are still known as jujutsu or jiu-jitsu either for that reason, or simply to differentiate them from mainstream judo. From Kano’s original style of judo, several related forms have evolved—some now widely considered to be distinct arts:

  • Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu: In 1914, Mitsuyo Maeda introduced judo to Brazil. Maeda taught judo to Carlos Gracie (1902–1994) and others in Brazil. The Gracie family named their development of judo ‘Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu’. This style emphasized the newaza aspects of judo and retains many of the kansetsu waza that were subsequently prohibited in competitive judo. Brazilan jiu-jitsu was popularized worldwide following its success in high profile mixed martial arts tournaments in the 1990s.[citation needed]
  • Kosen judo (高專柔道?): Sometimes erroneously described as a separate style of judo, Kosen Judo is a competition rules set of Kodokan Judo that was popularized in the early 20th century for use in Japanese Special High Schools Championships held at Kyoto Imperial University.[62]The word “Kosen” is an acronym of Koto Senmon Gakko (高等専門学校?, literally “Higher Professional School”). Kosen Judo’s focus on newaza has drawn comparisons with Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.
  • Russian judo: This distinctive style of judo was influenced by Sambo. It is represented by well-known coaches such as Alexander Retuinskih and Igor Yakimov, and mixed martial arts fighters such as Igor Zinoviev, Fedor Emelianenko and Karo Parisyan. In turn, Russian judo has influenced mainstream judo, with techniques such as the flying armbar being accepted into Kodokan judo.
  • Sambo (especially Sport Sambo): Vasili Oshchepkov was the first European judo black belt under Kano. Oshchepkov went on to contribute his knowledge of Judo as one of the three founders of Sambo, which also integrated various international and Soviet bloc wrestling styles and other combative techniques. Oshchepkov died during the political purges of 1937. In their History of Sambo, Brett Jacques and Scott Anderson wrote that in Russia “judo and SOMBO were considered to be the same thing”—albeit with a different uniform and some differences in the rules.[63]

[edit]Safety

Kano’s vision for judo was one of a martial way that could be practiced realistically. Randori (free practice) was a central part of judo pedagogy and shiai (competition) a crucial test of a judoka’s understanding of judo.[64] Safety necessitated some basic innovations that shaped judo’s development. Atemi waza (striking techniques) were entirely limited to kata (prearranged forms) early in Judo’s history. Kansetsu waza (joint manipulation techniques) were limited to techniques that focused on the elbow joint. Various throwing techniques that were judged to be too dangerous to practice safely were also prohibited in shiai. To maximise safety in nage waza (throwing techniques), judoka trained in ukemi (break falls) and practiced on tatami (rice straw mats).[citation needed]

[edit]Kansetsu and shime waza

The application of joint manipulation and strangulation/choking techniques is generally safe under controlled conditions typical of judo dojo and in competition. It is usual for there to be age restrictions on the practice and application of these types of techniques, but the exact nature of these restrictions will vary from country to country and from organization to organization.[citation needed]

[edit]Nage waza

Safety in the practice of throwing techniques depends on the skill level of both tori and uke. Inexpertly applied throws have the potential to injure both tori and uke, for instance when tori compensates for poor technique by powering through the throw. Similarly, poor ukemi can result in injury, particularly from more powerful throws that uke lacks the skill to breakfall from. For these reasons, throws are normally taught in order of difficulty for both tori and uke. This is exemplified in the Gokyo (五教?, literally “five teachings”), a traditional grouping of throws arranged in order of difficulty of ukemi. Those grouped in Dai ikkyo (第一教?, literally “first teaching”) are relatively simple to breakfall from whereas those grouped in dai gokyo (第五教?, literally “fifth teaching”) are difficult to breakfall from.[citation needed]

[edit]Judoka (practitioner)

A practitioner of Judo is known as a Judoka (柔道家 jūdōka?, Judo practitioner), though traditionally only those of 4th dan or higher were called “Judoka”. The suffix -ka (家?), when added to a noun, means a person with expertise or special knowledge on that subject. Other practitioners below the rank of 4th dan used to be called kenkyu-sei (研究生?, trainees). The modern meaning of “Judoka” in English refers to a Judo practitioner of any level of expertise.[65]

A Judo teacher is called sensei (先生?).[65] The word sensei comes from sen or saki (before) and sei (life) – i.e. one who has preceded you. In Western dojo, it is common to call any instructor of dan grade sensei. Traditionally, that title was reserved for instructors of 4th dan and above.[citation needed]

[edit]Judogi (uniform)

Main article: Judogi

The judogi is made from a heavy weave to withstand the strength of throwing and grappling.

Judo practitioners traditionally wear white uniforms called keikogi (稽古着, keikogi) practice clothing or judogi (柔道着 jūdōgi?, judo clothing).[66] sometimes abbreviated in the west as “gi”. It comprises a heavy cotton kimono-like jacket called anuwagi (上衣?, jacket), similar to traditional hanten (半纏?, workers jackets) fastened by an obi (帯 obi?, belt), coloured to indicate rank, and cotton draw-string zubon (ズボン?, trousers).[67] Early examples of keikogi had short sleeves and trouser legs and the modern long-sleeved judogi was adopted in 1906.[68]

The modern use of the blue judogi for high level competition was first suggested by Anton Geesink at the 1986 Maastricht IJF DC Meeting.[69] For competition, a blue judogi is worn by one of the two competitors for ease of distinction by judges, referees, and spectators. In Japan, both judoka use a white judogi and the traditional red obi (based on the colors of the Japanese flag) is affixed to the belt of one competitor. Outside Japan, a colored obi may also be used for convenience in minor competitions, the blue judogi only being mandatory at the regional or higher levels, depending on organisation. Japanese practitioners and traditionalists tend to look down on the use of blue because of the fact that Judo is considered a pure sport, and replacing the pure white judogi for the impure blue, is an offence.[69]

For events organised under the auspices of the International Judo Federation (IJF), judogi have to bear the IJF Official Logo Mark Label. This label demonstrates that the judogi has passed a number of quality control tests to ensure it conforms to construction regulations ensuring it is not too stiff, flexible, rigid or slippery to allow the opponent to grip or to perform techniques.[70]

[edit]Organizations

Main article: List of judo organizations

The international governing body for Judo is the International Judo Federation (IJF), founded in 1951. Members of the IJF include the African Judo Union (AJU), the Pan-American Judo Confederation (PJC), the Judo Union of Asia (JUA), the European Judo Union (EJU) and the Oceania Judo Union (OJU), each comprising a number of national judo associations. The IJF is responsible for organising international competition and hosts the World Judo Championships and is involved in running the Olympic Judo events.[71]

[edit]Rank and grading

Main article: Judo ranks and grades

Judo is a hierarchical art, where seniority of judoka is designated by what is known as the kyu (級 kyū?) -dan (段 dan?) ranking system. This system was developed by Jigoro Kano based on the ranking system in the board game Go. Beginning students progress through kyu grades towards dan grades.

A judoka’s position within the kyu-dan ranking system is displayed by the color of their belt. Beginning students typically wear a white belt, progressing through descending kyu ranks until they are deemed to have achieved a level of competence sufficient to be a dan grade, at which point they wear the kuro obi (黒帯?, black belt). The kyu-dan ranking system has since been widely adopted by modern martial arts.[72]

The highest grade jūdan (tenth degree black belt) has no formal requirements and is decided by the president of the Kodokan, currently Kano Jigoro’s grandson Yukimitsu Kano. As of 2011, fifteen Japanese men have been promoted to this rank by the Kodokan, three of whom are still alive;[72] the IJF and Western national federations have promoted another seven who are not recognized by the Kodokan. On July 28, 2011, the promotion board of USA Judo awarded Keiko Fukuda the rank of 10th dan, who is the first woman to be promoted to judo’s highest level, albeit not a Kodokan-recognized rank.

Although dan ranks tend to be consistent between national organizations there is more variation in the kyū grades, with some countries having more kyū grades. Although initially kyū grade belt colours were uniformly white, today a variety of colours are used. The first black belts to denote aDan rank in the 1880s, initially the wide obi was used; as practitioners trained in kimono, only white and black obi were used. It was not until the early 1900s, after the introduction of the judogi, that an expanded colored belt system of awarding rank was created.[72]

[edit]See also

  • Judo techniques, partial list of judo techniques
  • Judo by country
  • List of judoka
  • List of celebrity judoka

[edit]Footnotes

  1. ^ Inman (2005) p10
  2. ^ The first Olympic competition to award medals to women judoka was in 1992; in 1988, women competed as a demonstration sport. Inman (2005) p11
  3. ^ Kano (2008) pp46-47
  4. ^ a b Kano (2008) p1; Hoare (2009) p43
  5. ^ a b Kano (2008) p2
  6. ^ Hoare (2009) p44
  7. ^ Fukuda (2004) p145
  8. ^ Kano (2008) pp3-4; Hoare (2009) pp45-47; Fukuda (2004) pp145-152. Keiko Fukuda 9th Dan (born 1913) is the grand-daughter of Fukuda Hachinosuke, and is the last surviving direct student of Kano: Davis, Simon, “Be Strong, Be Gentle, Be Beautiful – Keiko Fukuda”, United States Judo Federation, retrieved March 12, 2011
  9. ^ Kano (2008) p6; Hoare (2009) p47
  10. ^ Kano (2008) pp9-10
  11. ^ Kano (2008) p11
  12. ^ Kano (2005) p23
  13. ^ Hoare (2009) pp52-53. For location of Eisho-ji temple, see:
    “Way to Eisho-Ji Temple”, Kodokan, retrieved March 14, 2011
  14. ^ Kano (2008) p20
  15. ^ Lowry (2006) p49
  16. ^ Kano (2005) pp39-40
  17. ^ For Kano’s opinions on the wider applicability of jita kyōei to life see for example, Kano (2008) p107
  18. ^ Hoare (2009) p56
  19. ^ Judo had been used before then, as in the case of a Jujutsu school that called itself Chokushin-ryū Jūdō (直信流柔道?, Sometimes rendered as Jikishin-ryū Jūdō), but its use was rare.
  20. ^ Daigo (2005) p8
  21. ^ Numerous texts exist that describe the waza of judo in detail. Daigo (2005); Inokuma and Sato (1987); Kano (1994); Mifune (2004); and Ohlenkamp (2006) are some of the better examples
  22. ^ Kano (1994) pp45-54
  23. ^ Ishikawa and Draeger (1999) p179
  24. ^ Kano (1994) pp 42-43; Mifune (2004) pp 41-43
  25. ^ a b Kano (1994) p 44; Mifune (2004) p 44
  26. ^ Takahashi (2005) pp 39-43
  27. ^ a b Daigo (2005) p10
  28. ^ For full coverage of katame waza techniques extant in current judo competition rules see Adams (1991), Kashiwazaki (1992) and Kashiwazaki (1997)
  29. ^ Koizumi, Gunji. “Ne-waza (Groundwork) and Atemi-waza (blows) in Judo”. Judo. Budokwai Judo Quarterly Bulletin. Retrieved 11 September 2012.
  30. ^ Adams (1991)
  31. ^ Otaki & Draeger (1983) pp398-405; Kano (1982) pp192-203
  32. ^ Daigo (2005) p 9; Harrison (1952) pp 162-168
  33. ^ Ishikawa and Draeger (1999) p84
  34. ^ Kano (1994) p142;Ishikawa and Draeger (1999) p84
  35. ^ For a review of the ten official Kodokan kata, see Jones and Hanon (2010)
  36. ^ Kano (1994) pp148-159; Otaki and Draeger pp73-109, pp139-266
  37. ^ Kano (1994) pp160-172; Otaki and Draeger pp110-138, pp267-405
  38. ^ Kano (1994) pp173-191
  39. ^ Kano (1994) pp192-203
  40. ^ Kano (1994) pp204-219; Fukuda (2004) pp1-144
  41. ^ De Crée and Jones (2009a, 2009b, 2009c)
  42. ^ Kano (1994) pp220-223
  43. ^ De Crée (2012) pp56-94
  44. ^ De Crée (2012) pp56-107
  45. ^ Kano (1994) pp224-238
  46. ^ Kano (1994) pp239-251
  47. ^ De Crée and Jones (2011a, 2011b, 2011c)
  48. ^ Fromm and Soames (1982) pp71-72, p109
  49. ^ Mifune (2004) pp211-220
  50. ^ Fromm and Soames (1982) pp71-72, pp108-109
  51. ^ a b Hoare (2005) pp 4-7
  52. ^ Hoare (2009) p109
  53. ^ The Contribution of Judo to Education by Kano Jigoro (judoinfo.com)
  54. ^ Koizumi (1947)
  55. ^ Black Belt Vol. 2, No. 2. Active Interest Media, Inc.. Mar 1964. p. 27.
  56. ^ a b c d e f g h Takahashi (2005) pp 18-20
  57. ^ a b Downey, G. (2007). Producing pain: Techniques and technologies in no-Holds-barred fighting. Social Studies of Science, 37(2), 201-226. Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/25474514
  58. ^ Dure, B. (2008, June 12) Do judo stars have MMA chops? USA Today. Retrieved fromhttp://www.lexisnexis.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/hottopics/lnacademic/?verb=sr&csi=8213&sr=HLEAD(Do+judo+stars+have+MMA+chops%3F)%2BAND%2BDATE%2BIS%2B2008-06-12
  59. ^ a b (http://www.jiu-jitsu.net/history.shtml).
  60. ^ Cheng, M. (2012, July 10) For some judo Olympians, MMA could be 2nd career. Associated Press Worldstream. Retrieved fromhttp://www.lexisnexis.com.ezproxy.umuc.edu/hottopics/lnacademic/?verb=sr&csi=138211&sr=HLEAD(For+some+judo+Olympians%2C+MMA+could+be+2nd+career)%2BAND%2BDATE%2BIS%2B2012-07-10
  61. ^ (www.ufc.com).
  62. ^ Kashiwazaki (1997) pp14-15
  63. ^ “The History of Sombo – European Judo is really Japanese Sambo?” by Brett Jacques and Scott Anderson [1] [2] [3]
  64. ^ Kano, Jigoro. “The Contribution of Judo to Education”. Retrieved 10 September 2012.
  65. ^ a b Inokuma and Sato (1987) p253
  66. ^ Inokuma and Sato (1987) p253; Lowry (2006) pp 35-61
  67. ^ Lowry (2006) p 39
  68. ^ Hoare (2005) p 8
  69. ^ a b “Introduction of the Blue Judogi”. International Judo Federation.
  70. ^ “Judogi Guidace”, International Judo Federation, January 2011, retrieved March 11, 2011
  71. ^ International Judo Federation, retrieved March 13, 2011
  72. ^ a b c Ohlenkamp, Neil (Last modified March 25, 2007.). “The Judo Rank System”. JudoInfo.com. Retrieved 2007-10-15.

 

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Capoeira

Capoeira
Rugendasroda.jpg
Capoeira or the Dance of War by Johann Moritz Rugendas, 1825, published in 1835
Focus Kicking, Punching, Slapping, Headbutting, Acrobatics, Leg Sweeps, Knee/Elbow Strikes, Takedowns
Country of origin Brazil Brazil
Famous practitioners Manuel dos Reis Machado (Mestre Bimba)
Vicente Ferreira Pastinha
João Grande
João Pereira dos Santos (Mestre João Pequeno)
Anderson Silva
Lateef Crowder
Eddy Gordo

Capoeira (/ˌkæpuːˈɛərə/; Portuguese pronunciation: [kapuˈejɾɐ] in English cap-oh-ay-ra)) is a Brazilian martial art that combines elements of dance and music. It was created in Brazil mainly by descendants of African slaves withBrazilian native influences[citation needed], probably beginning in the 16th century. It is known by quick and complex moves, using mainly power, speed, and leverage for leg sweeps.

The word capoeira probably comes from Tupi, referring to the areas of low vegetation in the Brazilian interior.

Contents

[show]

[edit]History

Capoeira’s history begins with the adoption of African slavery by Portuguese colonists in Brazil. Since the 16th century, Portugal extensively adopted slavery to man their colonies, coming mainly from West and Central Africa. Brazil, with its vast territory, was the major destination of African slaves, receiving 38.5% of all slaves sent by ships across the Atlantic Ocean.

Capoeira has a long and controversial history, since historical documentation in Brazil was very scarce in its colonial times. Evidences, studies and oral tradition leave little doubt about its Brazilian roots, but it is impossible to precisely identify the exact Brazilian region or time it began to take form.

[edit]Origins

In the 16th century Portugal had one of the biggest colonial empires of the world, but it lacked people to actually colonize it. In the Brazilian colony the Portuguese, like many European colonists, opted to use slavery to supply this shortage of workers. Colonists tried to enslave Brazilian natives in the beginning, but this quickly proved too difficult for many reasons, including the familiarity natives had with the land. The solution was importing slaves from Africa.[1]

In its first century the main economic activity in the colony was the production and processing of sugarcane. Portuguese colonists used to create large sugarcane farms called engenhos, farms which extensively used enslaved workers. Slaves, living in inhumane and humiliating conditions, were forced to work hard and often suffered physical punishment for any small misbehaviour.[1] Even though slaves outnumbered the Portuguese colonists, the lack of weapons, the colonial law, the disagreement between slaves coming from different African cultures and their complete lack of knowledge about the land and its surroundings would usually discourage the idea of a rebellion.

In this environment capoeira began to develop. More than a fighting style, it was created as a hope of survival, a tool with which an escaped slave, completely unequipped, could survive in the hostile, unknown land and face the hunt of the capitães-do-mato, colonial agents armed and mounted in charge of finding escapees.

[edit]Quilombos

a quilombola, painted by Antônio Parreiras

Soon several groups of slaves would gather and establish quilombos, settlements in far and hard to reach places. After its humble start, some quilombos would develop, attracting more runaway slaves, Brazilian natives and even Europeans escaping the law or Catholic extremism. Sometimes a quilombo would become a real independent multi-ethnic state.[2]

Everyday life in a quilombo would offer freedom and the opportunity to rescue traditional cultures lost due to colonial oppression.[2] In this kind of multi-ethnic community, constantly threatened by Portuguese colonial troops, capoeira evolved from a survival tool to a martial art focused on war.

The biggest of the quilombos, the Quilombo dos Palmares, consisted of many villages mostly of African slaves though they also consisted of other ethnicities and lasted for more than a century, resisting, often outnumbered, many colonial attacks. This quilombo resisted at least 24 small attacks and 18 great colonial invasions. Portuguese soldiers sometimes stated it took more than one dragoon to capture a quilombo warrior, since they would defend themselves with a strangely moving fighting technique. The governor from that province declared “it is harder to defeat a quilombo than the Dutch invaders.”[2]

[edit]Urbanization

Things in the colony began to change when the prince and future king Dom João VI, along with the whole Portuguese court, escaped to Brazil in 1808 due to Portugal being invaded by Napoleonic troops. The colony, a mere source of natural resources, would finally begin to develop as a nation.[3] The Portuguese monopoly effectively came to an end when Brazilian ports opened for trade with foreign nations.[4] Cities would grow in importance and Brazilian people could finally get the permission to manufacture common products once imported from Portugal, like glass.[3]

Registries of capoeira test practices existed since the 18th century in Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Recife, but the huge increase of urban slaves and social life in Brazilian cities gave capoeira a greater notoriety and diffusion capacity. In Rio the use of capoeira was getting so problematic that the colonial government established severe physical punishments to its practice.[5] In his book, Matthias Röhrig Assunção provided ample data from police records, dating back to the 1800s, demonstrating that capoeira was an “important reason” to detain slaves and “free coloured individuals.” “From 288 slaves that entered the Calabouço jail during the years 1857 and 1858, 80 (31%) were arrested for capoeira, and only 28 (10.7%) for running away. Out of 4,303 arrests in Rio police jail in 1862, 404 detainees—nearly 10%—had been arrested for capoeira.” [6]

[edit]End of slavery and prohibition of Capoeira

Original Lei Áurea document

At the end of the 19th century, slavery in the Brazilian Empire was already doomed for many reasons, among them the ever increasing number of slave’s escapes and the frequent raids by quilombo militias on properties which still adopted slavery. The Empire tried to soften the problems with laws that would restrict slavery, but Brazil would inevitably recognize its end on May 13, 1888, with a law called Lei Áurea, sanctioned by imperial parliament and signed by princess Isabel.

Free black people would soon find themselves abandoned. A vast majority had nowhere to live, no job and were despised by Brazilian society, which usually saw them as lazy workers.[7][8] The increase of European and Asian workers of that time would diminish job opportunities even more and many black people would become marginalized. Naturally, they maintained capoeira as a means of recreation and martial arts practice.[8][9]

It was inevitable that capoeira practitioners would start using their abilities in unconventional ways. Many began to use capoeiristas as body guards, mercenaries, hitmen, henchmen. Groups of capoeira practitioners, known as maltas, used to terrorize Rio de Janeiro. In little time, in 1890, the recently proclaimed Brazilian Republic decreed the prohibition of capoeira in the whole country,[10] as things were pretty chaotic in the Brazilian capital and many police reports would demonstrate that capoeira was an undeserved advantage in a fight.[9]

After the prohibition, any citizen caught practicing capoeira, in a fight or for any other reason, would be arrested, tortured and often mutilated by the police. The art of capoeira, after brief freedom, was once again condemned and repressed. Cultural practices, like the roda de capoeira, were conducted in far or hidden places and often practitioners would leave someone as sentry, to warn if the police were approaching the area.

[edit]Luta Regional Baiana

In 1932, a time when Capoeira repression wasn’t as strong as before, Mestre Bimba, a strong fighter both in legal and illegal fights, founded in Salvador the first ever Capoeira school. Bimba, analyzing the way many capoeiristas were using their abilities only to impress tourists, believed that Capoeira was losing its efficiency as a martial art. Thus Bimba, helped by his student José Cisnando Lima, intended to return Capoeira to its martial roots. Bimba also developed the first Capoeira systematical training method. As the word Capoeira was still forbidden by Brazilian law, Bimba called his new style Luta Regional Baiana (meaning regional fight from Bahia).[11]

In 1937 Bimba founded the school Centro de Cultura Física e Luta Regional, with official permission of Salvador’s Secretary of Education (Secretaria da Educação, Saúde e Assistência de Salvador). His work was very well accepted in Salvador and Bimba got the unique opportunity to teach Capoeira to the cultural elite of the city.[11] Finally in 1940 Capoeira left the Brazilian penal code and definitely left illegality.

Soon the notoriety of Bimba’s Capoeira proved to be a problem to traditional capoeiristas, who were gradually losing visibility and were still distrusted by society. This imbalance began to change with the founding of Centro Esportivo de Capoeira Angola (CECA), in 1941, by Vicente Ferreira Pastinha. Located in the neighbourhood of Pelourinho, in Salvador, this school attracted many traditional capoeiristas who would prefer to keep Capoeira as original as possible. CECA’s notoriety immortalized the name Capoeira Angola as definition of the traditional Capoeira style. The term wasn’t new, as during the 19th century Capoeira was in some places referred to as brincar de angola (meaning playing Angola) and many other masters, which did not use Pastinha’s techniques, adopted it.[12]

[edit]Capoeira today

A demonstration of some basic capoeira techniques in Boise, Idaho

Capoeira nowadays is not only a martial art, but an active exporter of Brazilian culture all over the world. Since the 1970s Capoeira masters began to emigrate and teach it in other countries. Present in many countries in every continent, every year Capoeira attracts to Brazil thousands of foreign students and, often, foreign capoeiristas work hard to learn the official Brazilian language, Portuguese, in an effort to better understand and become part of the art. Renowned Capoeira Masters are often invited to teach abroad or even establish their own schools. Capoeira presentations, normally theatrical, acrobatic and with little martiality, are common sights in the whole world.

The martial art aspect is still present and, like old times, is still subtle and disguised, leading many non-practitioners to ignore its presence. Trickery is ever present and expert capoeiristas never take their sights off their opponents in a Capoeiragame. An attack can be disguised even as a friendly gesture.

Symbol of the Brazilian culture, symbol of the ethnic amalgam that characterizes Brazil, symbol of resistance to the oppression, Capoeira definitely changed its image and became a source of pride to Brazilian people. It is officially consideredintangible cultural heritage of Brazil.

[edit]Martial Art

Capoeira is a fast and versatile martial art which is historically focused on fighting outnumbered or in technological disadvantage.

Simple animation depicting part of theginga

The ginga (literally: rocking back and forth; to swing) is the fundamental movement in capoeira, important both for attack and defense purposes. It has two main objectives. One is to keep the capoeirista in a state of constant motion, preventing him or her from being a still and easy target. The other, using also fakes and feints, is to mislead, fool, trick the opponent, leaving them open for an attack or a counter-attack.

The attacks in the Capoeira should be done when opportunity arises and must be decisive, like a direct kick in the face or a vital body part, or a strong takedown. Most Capoeira attacks are made with the legs, like direct or swirling kicks, rasteiras (leg sweeps), tesouras or knee strikes. The head strike is a very important counter-attack move. Elbow strikes, punches and other forms of takedowns complete the main list.

The defense is based on the principle of non-resistance, meaning avoiding an attack using evasive moves instead of blocking it. Avoids are called esquivas, which depend on the direction of the attack and intention of the defender, and can be done standing or with a hand leaning on the floor. A block should only be made when the esquiva is not possible. This fighting strategy allows quick and unpredictable counterattacks, the ability to focus on more than one adversary and to face empty-handed an armed adversary.

A Capoeira movement (Aú Fechado) (click for animation).

A series of rolls and acrobatics (like the Cartwheels called aú) allows the capoeirista to quickly overcome a takedown or a loss of balance, and to position themselves around the aggressor in order to lay up for an attack. It is this combination of attacks, defense and mobility which gives Capoeira its perceived ‘fluidity’ and choreography-like style.

[edit]Capoeira game

Capoeiristas outside

Playing Capoeira is both a game and a method of practicing the application of Capoeira movements in simulated combat. It can be played anywhere, but it’s usually done in a roda. During the game most Capoeira moves are used, but capoeiristas usually avoid using punches or elbow strikes unless it’s a very aggressive game.

The game usually does not focus on knocking down or destroying the opponent, rather it emphasizes skill. Capoeiristas often prefer to rely on a takedown like a rasteira, then allowing the opponent to recover and get back into the game. It is also very common to slow down a kick inches before hitting the target, so a capoeirista can enforce superiority without the need of injuring the opponent. If an opponent clearly cannot dodge an attack, there is no reason to complete it. However, between two high-skilled capoeiristas, the game can get much more aggressive and dangerous. Capoeiristas tend to avoid showing this kind of game in presentations or to the general public.

[edit]Roda

Capoeiristas in a roda (Porto Alegre,Brazil)

The Roda (pronounced HOH-dah) is a circle formed by capoeiristas and capoeira musical instruments, where every participant sings the typical songs and claps their hands following the music. Two capoeiristas enter the roda and play the game according to the style required by the musical instruments rhythm. The game finishes when one of the musicians holding a berimbau determine it, when one of the capoeiristas decide to leave or call the end of the game or when another capoeirista interrupts the game to start playing, either with one of the current players or with another capoeirista.

In a roda every cultural aspect of Capoeira is present, not only the martial side. Aerial acrobatics are common in a presentation roda, while not seen as often in a more serious one. Takedowns, on the other hand, are common in a serious roda but rarely seen in presentations.

[edit]Batizado

The “Batizado” (baptism, in English) is a ceremonial roda where new students will get recognized as capoeiristas and earn their first graduation. Also more experienced students may go up in rank, depending on their skills and capoeira culture. In Mestre Bimba’s Capoeira Regional, batizado was the first time a new student would play capoeira following the sound of the berimbau.

Students enter the roda against a high-ranked capoeirista (a teacher or master) and normally the game ends with the student being taken down. In some cases the more experienced capoeirista can judge the takedown unnecessary. Following thebatizado the new graduation, generally in the form of a cord, is given.

[edit]Apelido

Traditionally, the batizado is the moment when the new practitioner gets or formalizes his or her apelido (nickname, in English). This tradition was created back when Capoeira practice was considered a crime. To avoid having problems with the law, capoeiristas would present themselves in the Capoeira community only by their nicknames. So if a capoeirista was captured by the police, he would be unable to identify his fellow capoeiristas, even when tortured.

Apelidos can come from many different things. A physical characteristic (like being tall or big), a habit (like smiling or drinking too much), place of birth, a particular skill, an animal, trivial things, anything.

Nowadays, even though apelidos are not necessary anymore, the tradition is still very alive not only in Capoeira but in many aspects of Brazilian culture.

[edit]Chamada

Chamada means ‘call’ and can happen at any time during a roda where the rhythm angola is being played. It happens when one player, usually the more advanced one, calls his or her opponent to a dance-like ritual. The opponent then approaches the caller and meets him or her to walk side by side. After it both resume normal play.

While it may seem like a break time or a dance, the chamada is actually both a trap and a test, as the caller is just watching to see if the opponent will let his guard down so she can perform a takedown or a strike. It is a critical situation, because both players are vulnerable due to the close proximity and potential for a surprise attack. It’s also a tool for experienced practitioners and masters of the art to test a student’s awareness and demonstrate when the student left herself open to attack.

The use of the chamada can result in a highly developed sense of awareness and helps practitioners learn the subtleties of anticipating another person’s hidden intentions. The chamada can be very simple, consisting solely of the basic elements, or the ritual can be quite elaborate including a competitive dialogue of trickery, or even theatric embellishments.

[edit]Volta ao mundo

Volta ao mundo means around the world.

The volta ao mundo takes place after an exchange of movements has reached a conclusion, or after there has been a disruption in the harmony of the game. In either of these situations, one player will begin walking around the perimeter of the circle counter-clockwise, and the other player will join the volta ao mundo in the opposite part of the roda, before returning to the normal game.

[edit]Malandragem and Mandinga

Malandragem is a word that comes from malandro, which means a person who possesses cunning as well as malicia (malice, in English). This, however, is misleading as the meaning of malicia in Capoeira is the capacity to understand someone’s intentions. In Brazil men who used street smarts to make a living were called malandros. Later the meaning expanded, indicating a person who is a quick thinker in finding a solution for a problem.

In Capoeira, malandragem is the ability to quickly understand an opponent’s aggressive intentions, and during a fight or a game, fool, trick and deceive him.

Similarly capoeiristas use the concept of “mandinga”. Mandinga can be translated into magic, or spell, but in capoeira a mandinguero is a clever fighter, able to trick the opponent. Mandinga is a tricky and strategic quality of the game, and even an certain esthetic, where the game is expressive and at times theatrical, particularly in the Angola style. The roots of the term mandingueiro would be a person who had the magic ability to avoid harm due to protection from the Orixas.[13]

[edit]Music

Main article: Capoeira music

Music is integral to Capoeira. It sets the tempo and style of game that is to be played within the roda. Typically the music is formed by instruments and singing. Rhythm, controlled by a typical instrument called berimbau, differ from very slow to very fast, depending on the style of the roda.

[edit]Instruments

A capoeira bateria showing threeberimbaus and a pandeiro.

Capoeira instruments are disposed in a row called bateria. It is traditionally formed by three berimbaus, two pandeiros, one atabaque, one agogô and one ganzá, but this format may vary depending on the Capoeira group’s traditions or the roda style.

The berimbau is the leading instrument, determining the tempo and style of the music and game played. Two low pitch berimbaus (called berra-boi and médio) form the base and a high pitch berimbau (called viola) makes variations and improvisations. The other instruments must follow the berimbaus rhythm, free to vary and improvise a little, depending upon the Capoeira group’s musical style.

As the capoeiristas change their playing style significantly following the toque of the berimbau, which sets the game’s speed, style and aggressiveness, it is truly the music that drives a Capoeira game.

[edit]Songs

Many of the songs are sung in a call and response format while others are in the form of a narrative. Capoeiristas sing about a wide variety of subjects. Some songs are about history or stories of famous capoeiristas. Other songs attempt to inspire players to play better. Some songs are about what is going on within the roda. Sometimes the songs are about life or love lost. Others have lighthearted and playful lyrics.

There are four basic kinds of songs in capoeira, the Ladaínha, Chula, Corrido and Quadra. The Ladaínha is a narrative solo sung only at the beginning of a roda, often by a mestre (master) or most respected capoeirista present. The solo is followed by a louvação, a call and response pattern that usually thanks God and one’s master, among other things. Each call is usually repeated word-for-word by the responders. The Chula is a song where the singer part is much bigger than the chorus response, usually eight singer verses for one chorus response, but the proportion may vary. The Corrido is a song where the singer part and the chorus response are equal, normally two verses by two responses. Finally, the Quadra is a song where the same verse is repeated four times, either three singer verses followed by one chorus response, or one verse and one response.

Capoeira songs can talk about virtually anything, being it about a historical fact, a famous capoeirista, trivial life facts, hidden messages for players, anything. Improvisation is very important also, while singing a song the main singer can change the music’s lyrics, telling something that’s happening in or outside the Roda.

[edit]Rhythms or Toques

There are different rhythms (called toques) that are played by the berimbau during the roda that will determine the mood and the game to be played. Some toques were created so capoeiristas could communicate with each other within the roda without having to say a word, like Cavalaria, while others were created to define a style, like Regional de Bimba. Below is a short description of some toques:

Angola: It is traditionally the first rhythm to be played in a roda. Its rhythm requires Capoeiristas to have a game that is slower and more strategical. Capoeiristas usually play with their hands on the ground for most of the game, displaying strength and equilibrium.

São Bento Grande: Probably the most famous toque. It calls for a lot of energy, acrobatic movements, fast take downs and leg sweeps, making it ideal for energetic presentations.

São Bento Pequeno: This rhythm is played to call an intermediate game between Angola and São Bento Grande. It requires both a high and low stance in the game, preferably in very close distance.

Iúna: A toque created by Mestre Bimba and used in Capoeira Regional. A medium-paced and graceful game, it is played traditionally by “formados” (graduated students) at the end of the roda. Throws (baloes), in which partners throw each other and must land on their feet, are inserted within the game. In other traditions, Iúna is a funeral toque.

Cavalaria: This toque carries anxiety and stress. Historically, when Capoeira was still prohibited this toque was used to alert capoeiristas that the police was coming, so they could escape before the practice being discovered. Today it is used to warn players of an imminent danger or disagreement in the game.

Idalina: A relaxed, dominant rhythm where the game is played with razors and knifes. Since the end of Capoeira prohibition, knifes or razors are unlikely to come around the roda, so usually this toque is played only in some presentations.

Many other toques, like Samango, Santa Maria, Amazonas, Regional de Bimba, Benguela or Miudinho have their own story, meaning and game style.[14][15]

[edit]Styles of Capoeira

Determining styles in capoeira is a very tough task, since there was never a unity in the original capoeira, or a teaching method before the decade of 1920. However, a division between two styles and a sub-style is widely accepted.

[edit]Capoeira Angola

Capoeira Angola refers to every capoeira that keeps the traditions held before the creation of the Regional style.

Existing in many parts of Brazil since colonial times, most notably in the cities of Rio de Janeiro, Salvador and Recife, it’s impossible to tell where and when Capoeira Angola began taking its present form. The name Angola starts as early as the beginning of slavery in Brazil, when Africans, taken to Luanda to be shipped to the Americas, were called in Brazil black people from Angola, regardless of their nationality. In some places of Brazil people would call capoeira as playing Angola and, according to Mestre Noronha, the Capoeira school Centro de Capoeira Angola Conceição da Praia, created in Bahia, already used the name Capoeira Angola illegally in the beginning of the 1920 decade.[12]

The name Angola was finally immortalized by Mestre Pastinha at February 23, 1941, when he opened the Centro Esportivo de capoeira Angola (CECA). Pastinha preferred the ludic aspects of the game rather than the martial side, and was much respected by recognized Capoeira masters. Soon many other masters would adopt the name Angola, even those who would not follow Pastinha’s style.

The ideal of Capoeira Angola is to maintain Capoeira as close to its roots as possible. Characterized by being strategic, with sneaking movements executed standing or near the floor depending on the situation to face, it values the traditions of malícia, malandragem and unpredictability of the original Capoeira.

Typical music bateria formation in a roda of Capoeira Angola is three berimbaus, two pandeiros, one atabaque, one agogô and one ganzuá.

[edit]Capoeira Regional

Capoeira Regional began to take form in the 1920 decade, when Mestre Bimba met his future student, José Cisnando Lima. Both believed that Capoeira was losing its martial side and concluded there was a need to restructure it. Bimba created his sequências de ensino (teaching combinations) and created Capoeira’s first teaching method. Advised by Cisnando, Bimba decided to call his style Luta Regional Baiana, as Capoeira was still illegal at that time.

The base of Capoeira Regional is the original Capoeira without many of the aspects that were impractical in a real fight, with less subterfuge and more objectivity. Training was mainly focused on attack, dodging and counter-attack, giving high importance to precision and discipline. Bimba also added a few moves from other arts, notably the batuque, old street fight game practiced by his father. Use of jumps or aerial acrobacies was kept to a minimum, since one of its foundations was always keeping at least one hand or foot firmly attached to the ground. Mestre Bimba often said, “o chão é amigo do capoeirista” (the floor is a friend to the capoeirista).

Capoeira Regional also introduced the first ranking method in Capoeira. Regional had three levels: calouro (freshman), formado (graduated) and formado especializado (specialist). When a student completed a course, a special celebration ceremony was had resulting with a silk scarf being tied around the capoeirista’s neck.

The traditions of roda and Capoeira game were kept, being used to put into use what was learned during training. Musical instruments disposition, however, was changed, being made by a single berimbau and two pandeiros.

The Luta Regional Baiana soon became popular, finally changing Capoeira’s bad image. Mestre Bimba made many presentations of his new style, but the best known was the one made at 1953 to Brazilian president Getúlio Vargas, where the president would say: “A Capoeira é o único esporte verdadeiramente nacional” (Capoeira is the only truly national sport).

[edit]Capoeira Contemporânea

In the 1970s a mixed style began to take form, with practitioners taking the aspects they considered more important from both Regional and Angola. Notably more acrobatic, this sub-style is seen by some as the natural evolution of Capoeira, by others as adulteration or even misinterpretation of Capoeira.

Nowadays the label Contemporânea applies to any Capoeira group who don’t follow Regional or Angola styles, even the ones who mix Capoeira with other martial-arts.

[edit]Ranks

Because of its origin, Capoeira never had unity or a general agreement. Ranking or graduating system follows the same path, as there never existed a ranking system accepted by most of the masters. That means graduation style varies depending of the group’s traditions.

The most common modern system uses colored ropes, called corda or cordão, tied around the waist. Some masters use different systems, or even no system at all.[citation needed]

There are many entities (leagues, federations and association) which have tried to unify the graduation system. The most usual[citation needed] is the system of the Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira (Brazilian Capoeira Confederation), which adopts ropes using the colors of the Brazilian flag, green, yellow, blue and white.[citation needed]

Even though it’s widely used with many small variations, many big and influential groups still use different systems. Even the Confederação Brasileira de Capoeira is not widely accepted as the Capoeira’s main representative.[citation needed]

[edit]Related activities

Even though those activities are strongly associated to the Capoeira, they have different meanings and origins.

[edit]Samba de roda

Main article: Samba de roda

Performed by many Capoeira groups, samba de roda is a traditional Afro-Brazilian dance & musical form that has been associated with Capoeira for many decades. The orchestra is composed by pandeiro, atabaque, berimbau-viola (high pitch berimbau), chocalho, accompanied by singing and clapping. Samba de roda is considered one of the primitive forms of modern Samba.

[edit]Maculelê

Main article: Maculelê (dance)

Originally the Maculelê is believed to have been an indigenous armed fighting style, using two sticks or a machete. Nowadays it’s a folkloric dance practiced with heavy afro-Brazilian percussion. Many Capoeira groups include Maculelê in their presentations.

[edit]Puxada de rede

Main article: Puxada de rede

Puxada de Rede is a Brazilian folkloric theatrical play, seen in many Capoeira performances. It is based on a traditional Brazilian legend involving the loss of a fisherman in a seafaring accident.

[edit]Capoeira in the media

[edit]Cinema

[edit]TV

  • In the TV series Stargate SG-1, the episode entitled “The Warrior” (season 5, episode 18) features a fictional martial art called “mastaba”, which closely resembles Capoeira.
  • The 2011 TV series Bob’s Burgers (Season 1 Episode 4) featured Capoeira.

[edit]Games

[edit]Comics

  • In the manga series Death Note, L uses Capoeira as his fighting style.
  • In the manga series Tenjho Tenge, Bob uses Capoeira as his fighting style.

[edit]See also

[edit]References

  1. ^ a b “”O Brasil no quadro do Antigo Sistema Colonial” (in Portuguese)”.
  2. ^ a b c GOMES, Flávio – Mocambos de Palmares; histórias e fontes (séculos XVI-XIX) (2010), Editora 7 Letras, ISBN 978-85-7577-641-4 (in Portuguese)
  3. ^ a b GOMES, Laurentino – 1808; Como uma rainha louca, um príncipe medroso e uma corte corrupta enganaram Napoleão e mudaram a História de Portugal e do Brasil (2007), Editora Planeta, ISBN 978-85-7665-320-2 (in Portuguese)
  4. ^ “Abertura dos portos brasileiros (in Portuguese)”.
  5. ^ “Gangues do Rio: Capoeira era reprimida no Brasil (in Portuguese)”.
  6. ^ ASSUNÇÃO, Matthias Röhrig – Capoeira: A History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art (2005), Routledge, ISBN 0-7146-8086-9
  7. ^ “A abolição (in Portuguese)”.
  8. ^ a b CARDOSO, Fernando Henrique – Capitalismo e Escravidão no Brasil Meridional (1962), Editora Civilização Brasileira, ISBN 85-200-0635-3 (in Portuguese)
  9. ^ a b CAMPOS, Andrelino – Do Quilombo à Favela: A Produção do “Espaço Criminalizado” no Rio de Janeiro, Editora Bertrand Brasil, ISBN 85-286-1159-0 (in Portuguese)
  10. ^ “Código penal brasileiro – proibição da Capoeira – 1890 (in Portuguese)”.
  11. ^ a b SODRE, Muniz – Mestre Bimba: Corpo de Mandiga (2002), Livraria da Travessa, ISBN 85-86218-13-8 (in Portuguese)
  12. ^ a b “Os Manuscritos do Mestre Noronha (in Portuguese)”.
  13. ^ “O Fio Da Navalha”, ESPN Brasil documentary, 2007
  14. ^ http://www.magalicapoeira.com/historia-da-capoeira/toques-de-capoeira
  15. ^ http://soulcapoeira.org/category/music/berimbau/

[edit]Printed references

  • Assunção, Matthias Röhrig (2005). Capoeira : A History of an Afro-Brazilian Martial Art. New York: Routledge. ISBN 0-7146-8086-9.
  • Capoeira, Nestor (2003). The Little Capoeira Book. (Alex Ladd, Trans.). Berkeley: North Atlantic. ISBN 1-55643-440-5.
  • Talmon-Chvaicer, Maya (2007). The Hidden History of Capoeira: A Collision of Cultures in the Brazilian Battle Dance. ISBN 978-0-292-71723-7.

[edit]Further reading

  • Almeida, Bira “Mestre Acordeon” (1986). Capoeira: A Brazilian Art Form. Berkeley: North Atlantic Books. ISBN 0-938190-30-X.
  • Merrell, Floyd (2005). Capoeira and Candomblé: Conformity and Resistance in Brazil. Princeton: Markus Wiener. ISBN 1-55876-349-X.

 

 

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Wushu – Chinese martial arts

File:Shi DeRu and Shi DeYang.jpg

Chinese martial arts, also referred to by the Mandarin Chinese term wushu (simplified Chinese: 武术; traditional Chinese: 武術; pinyin: wǔshù) and popularly as kung fu or gung fu (Chinese: 功夫; pinyin: gōngfu), are a number of fighting stylesthat have developed over the centuries in China. These fighting styles are often classified according to common traits, identified as “families” (家, jiā), “sects” (派, pài) or “schools” (門, mén) of martial arts. Examples of such traits include physical exercises involving animal mimicry, or training methods inspired by Chinese philosophies, religions and legends. Styles that focus on qi manipulation are called internal (内家拳, nèijiāquán), while others that concentrate on improving muscle and cardiovascular fitness are called external (外家拳, wàijiāquán). Geographical association, as in northern (北拳, běiquán) and southern (南拳, nánquán), is another popular classification method.

Kung-fu and wushu are terms that have been borrowed into English to refer to Chinese martial arts. However, the Chinese terms kung fu and wushu About this sound listen (Mandarin) (help·info); Cantonese: móuh-seuht) have distinct meanings;[1] the Chinese literal equivalent of “Chinese martial art” would be Zhongguo wushu (Chinese: 中國武術; pinyin: zhōngguó wǔshù).Terminology

Wǔshù literally means “martial art“. It is formed from the two words 武術: 武 (wǔ), meaning “martial” or “military” and 術 (shù), which translates into “discipline“, “skill” or “method.”

The term wushu has also become the name for the modern sport of wushu, an exhibition and full-contact sport of bare-handed and weapons forms (Chinese: 套路, pinyin: tàolù), adapted and judged to a set of aesthetic criteria for points developed since 1949 in the People’s Republic of China.[2][3]

The term “kung fu”

Main article: Kung fu (term)

In Chinese, kung fu (功夫, gōng meaning “work” or “achievement” and either fū, “man”, or fu, a particle or suffix that can mean “intensity”) can also be used in contexts completely unrelated to martial arts, and refers to any individual accomplishment or skill cultivated through long effort and hard work.[1] It is only in the late twentieth century, that this term was used in relation to martial arts by the Chinese community.[4][5] Wushu is a more precise term for general martial activities.

History

The genesis of Chinese martial arts has been attributed to the need for self-defense, hunting techniques and military training in ancient China. Hand-to-hand combat and weapons practice were important in training ancient Chinese soldiers.[6][7]

Detailed knowledge about the state and development of Chinese martial arts becomes available from the Nanjing decade (1928–1937), as the Central Guoshu Institute established by the Kuomintang regime made an effort to compile an encyclopedic survey of martial arts schools. Since the 1950s, the People’s Republic of China has organized Chinese martial arts as an exhibition and full-contact sport under the heading of Wushu.

Legendary origins

According to legend, Chinese martial arts originated during the semi-mythical Xia Dynasty (夏朝) more than 4,000 years ago.[8] It is said the Yellow Emperor Huangdi (legendary date of ascension 2698 BCE) introduced the earliest fighting systems to China.[9] The Yellow Emperor is described as a famous general who, before becoming China’s leader, wrote lengthy treatises on medicine, astrology and the martial arts. One of his main opponents was Chi You (蚩尤) who was credited as the creator of jiao di, a forerunner to the modern art of Chinese Wrestling.[10]

Early history

The earliest references to Chinese martial arts are found in the Spring and Autumn Annals (5th century BCE),[11] where a hand to hand combat theory, including the integration of notions of “hard” and “soft” techniques, is mentioned.[12] A combatwrestling system called juélì or jiǎolì (角力) is mentioned in the Classic of Rites.[13] This combat system included techniques such as strikes, throws, joint manipulation, and pressure point attacks. Jiao Di became a sport during the Qin Dynasty(221–207 BCE). The Han History Bibliographies record that, by the Former Han (206 BCE – 8 CE), there was a distinction between no-holds-barred weaponless fighting, which it calls shǒubó (手搏), for which training manuals had already been written, and sportive wrestling, then known as juélì (角力). Wrestling is also documented in the Shǐ Jì, Records of the Grand Historian, written by Sima Qian (ca. 100 BCE).[14]

In the Tang Dynasty, descriptions of sword dances were immortalized in poems by Li Bai. In the Song and Yuan dynasties, xiangpu contests were sponsored by the imperial courts. The modern concepts of wushu were fully developed by the Mingand Qing dynasties.[15]

Philosophical influences

The ideas associated with Chinese martial arts changed with the evolution of Chinese society and over time acquired some philosophical bases: Passages in the Zhuangzi (庄子), a Daoist text, pertain to the psychology and practice of martial arts. Zhuangzi, its eponymous author, is believed to have lived in the 4th century BCE. The Tao Te Ching, often credited to Lao Zi, is another Daoist text that contains principles applicable to martial arts. According to one of the classic texts ofConfucianism, Zhou Li (周禮/周礼), Archery and charioteering were part of the “six arts” (simplified Chinese: 六艺; traditional Chinese: 六藝; pinyin: liu yi, including rites, music, calligraphy and mathematics) of the Zhou Dynasty (1122–256 BCE).The Art of War (孫子兵法), written during the 6th century BCE by Sun Tzu (孫子), deals directly with military warfare but contains ideas that are used in the Chinese martial arts.

Daoist practitioners have been practicing Tao Yin (physical exercises similar to Qigong that was one of the progenitors to T’ai chi ch’uan) from as early as 500 BCE.[16] In 39–92 CE, “Six Chapters of Hand Fighting”, were included in the Han Shu(history of the Former Han Dynasty) written by Pan Ku. Also, the noted physician, Hua Tuo, composed the “Five Animals Play”—tiger, deer, monkey, bear, and bird, around 220 CE.[17] Daoist philosophy and their approach to health and exercise have influenced the Chinese martial arts to a certain extent. Direct reference to Daoist concepts can be found in such styles as the “Eight Immortals,” which uses fighting techniques attributed to the characteristics of each immortal.[18]

[edit]Shaolin and temple-based martial arts

Main article: Shaolin Monastery

The Shaolin style of wushu is regarded as amongst the first institutionalized Chinese martial arts.[19] The oldest evidence of Shaolin participation in combat is a stele from 728 CE that attests to two occasions: a defense of the Shaolin Monasteryfrom bandits around 610 CE, and their subsequent role in the defeat of Wang Shichong at the Battle of Hulao in 621 CE. From the 8th to the 15th centuries, there are no extant documents that provide evidence of Shaolin participation in combat.

Between the 16th and 17th centuries, no fewer than forty sources exist to provide evidence both that monks of Shaolin practiced martial arts, and that martial practice became an integral element of Shaolin monastic life. For monks to justify it by creating new Buddhist lore, the earliest appearance of the frequently cited legend concerns Bodhidharma’s supposed foundation of Shaolin Kung Fu dates to this period.[20] The origin of this legend has been traced to the Ming period‘s Yijin Jing or “Muscle Change Classic”, a text written in 1624 attributed to Bodhidharma.

Depiction of fighting monks demonstrating their skills to visiting dignitaries (early 19th-century mural in the Shaolin Monastery).

References of martial arts practice in Shaolin appear in various literary genres of the late Ming: the epitaphs of Shaolin warrior monks, martial-arts manuals, military encyclopedias, historical writings, travelogues, fiction and poetry. However these sources do not point out to any specific style originated in Shaolin.[21] These sources, in contrast to those from the Tang period, refer to Shaolin methods of armed combat. This include a skill Shaolin monks became famous for—the staff (gùn, Cantonese gwan). The Ming General Qi Jiguang included description of Shaolin Quan Fa (Pinyin romanization: Shào Lín Quán Fǎ or Wade-Giles romanization Shao Lin Ch’üan Fa, 少 林 拳 法 “fist principles”; Japanese pronunciation: Shorin Kempo or Kenpo) and staff techniques in his book, Ji Xiao Xin Shu (紀效新書), which can translate as New Book Recording Effective Techniques. When this book spread to East Asia, it had a great influence on the development of martial arts in regions such as Okinawa [22] and Korea.[23]

Modern history

[edit]Republican period

Most fighting styles that are being practiced as traditional Chinese martial arts today reached their popularity within the 20th century. Some of these include Bagua, Drunken Boxing, Eagle Claw, Five Animals, Hsing I, Hung Gar, Monkey, Bak Mei Pai, Praying Mantis, Fujian White Crane, Jow Ga, Wing Chun and T’ai chi ch’uan. The increase in the popularity of those styles is a result of the dramatic changes occurring within the Chinese society.

In 1900–01, the Righteous and Harmonious Fists rose against foreign occupiers and Christian missionaries in China. This uprising is known in the West as the Boxer Rebellion due to the martial arts and calisthenics practised by the rebels. Though it originally opposed the Manchu Qing Dynasty, the Empress Dowager Cixi gained control of the rebellion and tried to use it against the foreign powers. The failure of the rebellion led ten years later to the fall of the Qing Dynasty and the creation of the Chinese Republic.

The present view of Chinese martial arts are strongly influenced by the events of the Republican Period (1912–1949). In the transition period between the fall of the Qing Dynasty as well as the turmoils of the Japanese invasion and the Chinese Civil War, Chinese martial arts became more accessible to the general public as many martial artists were encouraged to openly teach their art. At that time, some considered martial arts as a means to promote national pride and build a strong nation. As a result, many training manuals (拳谱) were published, a training academy was created, two national examinations were organized as well as demonstration teams travelled overseas,[24] and numerous martial arts associations were formed throughout China and in various overseas Chinese communities. The Central Guoshu Academy (Zhongyang Guoshuguan, 中央國術館/中央国术馆) established by the National Government in 1928[25] and the Jing Wu Athletic Association (精武體育會/精武体育会) founded by Huo Yuanjia in 1910 are examples of organizations that promoted a systematic approach for training in Chinese martial arts.[26][27][28] A series of provincial and national competitions were organized by the Republican government starting in 1932 to promote Chinese martial arts. In 1936, at the 11th Olympic Games in Berlin, a group of Chinese martial artists demonstrated their art to an international audience for the first time.

The term Kuoshu (or Guoshu, 國術 meaning “national art”), rather than the colloquial term gongfu was introduced by the Kuomintang in an effort to more closely associate Chinese martial arts with national pride rather than individual accomplishment.

People’s Republic

Further information: Wushu (sport) and International Wushu Federation

Chinese martial arts experienced rapid international dissemination with the end of the Chinese Civil War and the founding of the People’s Republic of China on October 1, 1949. Many well known martial artists chose to escape from the PRC’s rule and migrate to Taiwan, Hong Kong,[29] and other parts of the world. Those masters started to teach within the overseas Chinese communities but eventually they expanded their teachings to include people from other ethnic groups.

Within China, the practice of traditional martial arts was discouraged during the turbulent years of the Chinese Cultural Revolution (1969–1976).[3] Like many other aspects of traditional Chinese life, martial arts were subjected to a radical transformation by the People’s Republic of China to align them with Maoist revolutionary doctrine.[3] The PRC promoted the committee-regulated sport of Wushu as a replacement to independent schools of martial arts. This new competition sport was disassociated from what was seen as the potentially subversive self-defense aspects and family lineages of Chinese martial arts.[3]

In 1958, the government established the All-China Wushu Association as an umbrella organization to regulate martial arts training. The Chinese State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports took the lead in creating standardized forms for most of the major arts. During this period, a national Wushu system that included standard forms, teaching curriculum, and instructor grading was established. Wushu was introduced at both the high school and university level. The suppression of traditional teaching was relaxed during the Era of Reconstruction (1976–1989), as Communist ideology became more accommodating to alternative viewpoints.[30] In 1979, the State Commission for Physical Culture and Sports created a special task force to reevaluate the teaching and practice of Wushu. In 1986, the Chinese National Research Institute of Wushu was established as the central authority for the research and administration of Wushu activities in the People’s Republic of China.[31]

Changing government policies and attitudes towards sports in general lead to the closing of the State Sports Commission (the central sports authority) in 1998. This closure is viewed as an attempt to partially de-politicize organized sports and move Chinese sport policies towards a moremarket-driven approach.[32] As a result of these changing sociological factors within China, both traditional styles and modern Wushu approaches are being promoted by the Chinese government.[33]

Chinese martial arts are an integral element of 20th-century Chinese popular culture.[34] Wuxia or “martial arts fiction” is a popular genre that emerged in the early 20th century and peaked in popularity during the 1960s to 1980s. Wuxia films were produced from the 1920s. The Kuonmintang suppressed wuxia, accusing it of promoting superstition and violent anarchy. Because of this, wuxia came to flourish in British Hong Kong, and the genre of kung fu movie in Hong Kong action cinema became wildly popular, coming to international attention from the 1970s. The genre declined somewhat during the 1980s, and in the late 1980s the Hong Kong film industry underwent a drastic decline, even before Hong Kong was handed to the People’s Republic in 1997. In the wake of Crouching Tiger, Hidden Dragon (2000), there has been somewhat of a revival of Chinese-produced wuxia films aimed at an international audience, including Hero (2002), House of Flying Daggers (2004) and Reign of Assassins (2010).

Styles

The Yang style of taijiquan being practiced on the Bund inShanghai

China has a long history of martial traditions that includes hundreds of different styles. Over the past two thousand years many distinctive styles have been developed, each with its own set of techniques and ideas.[35] There are also common themes to the different styles, which are often classified by “families” (家, jiā), “sects” (派, pai) or “schools” (門, men). There are styles that mimic movements from animals and others that gather inspiration from variousChinese philosophies, myths and legends. Some styles put most of their focus into the harnessing of qi, while others concentrate on competition.

Chinese martial arts can be split into various categories to differentiate them: For example, external (外家拳) and internal (内家拳).[36] Chinese martial arts can also be categorized by location, as in northern (北拳) and southern (南拳) as well, referring to what part of China the styles originated from, separated by the Yangtze River (Chang Jiang); Chinese martial arts may even be classified according to their province or city.[24] The main perceived difference between northern and southern styles is that the northern styles tend to emphasize fast and powerful kicks, high jumps and generally fluid and rapid movement, while the southern styles focus more on strong arm and hand techniques, and stable, immovable stances and fast footwork. Examples of the northern styles include changquan and xingyiquan. Examples of the southern styles include Bak Mei, Wuzuquan, Choy Li Fut and Wing Chun. Chinese martial arts can also be divided according to religion, imitative-styles (象形拳), and family styles such as Hung Gar (洪家). There are distinctive differences in the training between different groups of the Chinese martial arts regardless of the type of classification. However, few experienced martial artists make a clear distinction between internal and external styles, or subscribe to the idea of northern systems being predominantly kick-based and southern systems relying more heavily on upper-body techniques. Most styles contain both hard and soft elements, regardless of their internal nomenclature. Analyzing the difference in accordance with yin and yang principles, philosophers would assert that the absence of either one would render the practitioner’s skills unbalanced or deficient, as yin and yang alone are each only half of a whole. If such differences did once exist, they have since been blurred.

Training

Chinese martial arts training consists of the following components: basics, forms, applications and weapons; different styles place varying emphasis on each component.[37] In addition, philosophy, ethics and even medical practice[38]are highly regarded by most Chinese martial arts. A complete training system should also provide insight into Chinese attitudes and culture.[39]

Basics

The Basics (基本功) are a vital part of any martial training, as a student cannot progress to the more advanced stages without them; Basics are usually made up of rudimentary techniques, conditioning exercises, including stances. Basic training may involve simple movements that are performed repeatedly; other examples of basic training are stretching, meditation, striking, throwing, or jumping. Without strong and flexible muscles, management of Qi or breath, and proper body mechanics, it is impossible for a student to progress in the Chinese martial arts.[40][41] A common saying concerning basic training in Chinese martial arts is as follows:[42]

内外相合，外重手眼身法步，内修心神意氣力。

, which translates as:

Train both Internal and External.External training includes the hands, the eyes, the body and stances.

Internal training includes the heart, the spirit, the mind, breathing and strength.

Stances

Stances (steps or 步法) are structural postures employed in Chinese martial arts training.[43][44] They represent the foundation and the form of a fighter’s base. Each style has different names and variations for each stance. Stances may be differentiated by foot position, weight distribution, body alignment, etc. Stance training can be practiced statically, the goal of which is to maintain the structure of the stance through a set time period, or dynamically, in which case a series of movements is performed repeatedly. The Horse stance (骑马步/马步 qí mǎ bù/mǎ bù) and the bow stance are examples of stances found in many styles of Chinese martial arts.

Meditation

In many Chinese martial arts, meditation is considered to be an important component of basic training. Meditation can be used to develop focus, mental clarity and can act as a basis for qigong training.[45][46]

Use of qi

Main article: Qigong

The concept of qi or ch’i (氣/气) is encountered in a number of Chinese martial arts. Qi is variously defined as an inner energy or “life force” that is said to animate living beings; as a term for proper skeletal alignment and efficient use of musculature (sometimes also known as fa jin or jin); or as a shorthand for concepts that the martial arts student might not yet be ready to understand in full. These meanings are not necessarily mutually exclusive.[note 1] The existence of qi as a measurable form of energy as discussed in traditional Chinese medicine has no basis in the scientific understanding of physics, medicine, biology or human physiology.[47]

There are many ideas regarding the control of one’s qi energy to such an extent that it can be used for healing oneself or others.[citation needed] Some styles believe in focusing qi into a single point when attacking and aim at specific areas of the human body. Such techniques are known asdim mak and have principles that are similar to acupressure.[48]

Weapons training

Further information: Chinese swordsmanship

Most Chinese styles also make use of training in the broad arsenal of Chinese weapons for conditioning the body as well as coordination and strategy drills.[49] Weapons training (qìxiè 器械) are generally carried out after the student is proficient in the basics, forms and applications training. The basic theory for weapons training is to consider the weapon as an extension of the body. It has the same requirements for footwork and body coordination as the basics.[50] The process of weapon training proceeds with forms, forms with partners and then applications. Most systems have training methods for each of the Eighteen Arms of Wushu (shíbābānbīngqì 十八般兵器) in addition to specialized instruments specific to the system.

Application

Main article: Lei tai
See also: Sanshou and Shuai jiao

Application refers to the practical use of combative techniques. Chinese martial arts techniques are ideally based on efficiency and effectiveness.[51][52] Application includes non-compliant drills, such as Pushing Hands in many internal martial arts, and sparring, which occurs within a variety of contact levels and rule sets.

When and how applications are taught varies from style to style. Today, many styles begin to teach new students by focusing on exercises in which each student knows a prescribed range of combat and technique to drill on. These drills are often semi-compliant, meaning one student does not offer active resistance to a technique, in order to allow its demonstrative, clean execution. In more resisting drills, fewer rules apply, and students practice how to react and respond. ‘Sparring’ refers to the most important aspect of application training, which simulates a combat situation while including rules that reduce the chance of serious injury.

Competitive sparring disciplines include Chinese kickboxing Sǎnshǒu(散手) and Chinese folk wrestling Shuāijiāo(摔跤), which were traditionally contested on a raised platform arena Lèitái(擂台).[53] Lèitái represents public challenge matches that first appeared in the Song Dynasty. The objective for those contests was to knock the opponent from a raised platform by any means necessary. San Shou represents the modern development of Lei Tai contests, but with rules in place to reduce the chance of serious injury. Many Chinese martial art schools teach or work within the rule sets of Sanshou, working to incorporate the movements, characteristics, and theory of their style.[54] Chinese martial artists also compete in non-Chinese or mixed Combat sport, including boxing, kickboxing and Mixed martial arts.

Forms

Further information: form (martial arts)

Forms or taolu (Chinese: 套路; pinyin: tào lù) in Chinese are series of predetermined movements combined so they can be practiced as one linear set of movements. Forms were originally intended to preserve the lineage of a particular style branch, and were often taught to advanced students selected for that purpose. Forms contained both literal, representative and exercise-oriented forms of applicable techniques that students could extract, test, and train on through sparring sessions.[55]

Today, many consider forms to be one of the most important practices in Chinese martial arts. Traditionally, they played a smaller role in training combat application, and were eclipsed by sparring, drilling and conditioning. Forms gradually build up a practitioner’s flexibility, internal and external strength, speed and stamina, and teach balance and coordination. Many styles contain forms that use weapons of various lengths and types, using one or two hands. Some styles focus on a certain type of weapon. Forms are meant to be both practical, usable, and applicable as well as promoting flow, meditation, flexibility, balance, and coordination. Teachers are often heard to say “train your form as if you were sparring and spar as if it were a form.”

There are two general types of forms in Chinese martial arts. Most common are solo forms performed by a single student. There are also sparring forms—choreographed fighting sets performed by two or more people. Sparring forms were designed both to acquaint beginning fighters with basic measures and concepts of combat, and to serve as performance pieces for the school. Weapons-based sparring forms are especially useful for teaching students the extension, range, and technique required to manage a weapon.

Forms in Traditional Chinese Martial Arts

The term taolu (套路) is a shorten version of Tao Lu Yun Dong (套路运动), an expression introduced only recently with the popularity modern wushu. This expression refers to “exercise sets” and is used in the context of athletics or sport.

In contrast, in traditional Chinese martial arts alternative terminologies for the training (練) of ‘sets or forms are:

  • lian quan tao (練拳套) – practicing sequence of fist;
  • lian quan jiao (練拳腳) – practicing fists and feet;
  • lian bing qi (練兵器) – practicing weapons;
  • dui da (對打) and dui lian (對練) – fighting sets.

Traditional “sparring” sets, called dui da, 對打 or, dui lian, 對練, were an important part of Chinese martial arts for centuries. Dui lian (對練), literally means, to train by a pair of combatants opposing each other (the character l練, means to practice; to train; to perfect one’s skill; to drill). As well, often one of these terms are also included in the name of fighting sets: 雙演, shuang yan, ‘paired practice’; 掙勝, zheng sheng, ‘to struggle with strength for victory’; 敵, di, ‘ match – the character suggests to strike an enemy; and 破, po, ‘to break’.

Generally there are 21, 18, 12, 9 or 5 drills or ‘exchanges/groupings’ of attacks and counter attacks, in each dui lian, 對 練 set. These drills were considered only generic patterns and never meant to be considered inflexible ‘tricks’. Students practiced smaller parts/exchanges, individually with opponents switching sides in a continuous flow. Basically, dui lian were not only a sophisticated and effective methods of passing on the fighting knowledge of the older generation, they were important and effective training methods. The relationship between single sets and contact sets is complicated, in that some skills cannot be developed with single sets, and, conversely, with dui lian. Unfortunately, it appears that most traditional combat oriented dui lian and their training methodology have disappeared, especially those concerning weapons. There are a number of reasons for this. In modern Chinese martial arts most of the dui lian are recent inventions designed for light props resembling weapons, with safety and drama in mind. The role of this kind of training has degenerated to the point of being useless in a practical sense, and, at best, is just performance.

By the early Song period, sets were not so much “individual isolated technique strung together” but rather were composed of techniques and counter technique groupings. It is quite clear that “sets” and “fighting (2 person) sets” have been instrumental in TCM for many hundreds of years —even before the Song Dynasty. There are images of two person weapon training in Chinese stone painting going back at least to the Eastern Han Dynasty.

According to what has been passed on by the older generations, the approximate ratio of contact sets to single sets was approximately 1:3. In other words, about 30% of the sets practiced at Shaolin were contact sets, dui lian, 對 練, and two person drill training. This is, in part, evidenced by the Qing Dynasty mural at Shaolin.

Ancient literature from the Tang and Northern Song Dynasties suggests that some sets, including those that required two or more participants, became very elaborate and mainly concerned with aesthetics. During this time, some martial arts systems devolved to the point that they became popular forms of martial art storytelling entertainment shows. This created an entire new category of martial arts known as Hua Fa Wuyi, 花法武藝, or “fancy patterns for developing military skill”. During the Northern Song period it was noted by historians that this phenomenon had a negative influence on training in the military.

For most of its history, Shaolin martial arts was largely weapon-focused: staves were used to defend the monastery, not bare hands. Even the more recent military exploits of Shaolin during the Ming and Qing Dynasties involved weapons. According to some traditions, monks first studied basics for one year and were then taught staff fighting so that they could protect the monastery. Although wrestling has been as sport in China for centuries, weapons have been the most important part of Chinese wushu since ancient times. If one wants to talk about recent or ‘modern’ developments in Chinese martial arts (including Shaolin for that matter), it is the over-emphasis on bare hand fighting. During the Northern Song Dynasty (976- 997 A.D) when platform fighting known as Da Laitai (Title Fights Challenge on Platform) first appeared, these fights were with only swords and staves. Although later, when bare hand fights appeared as well, it was the weapons events that became the most famous. These open-ring competitions had regulations and were organized by government organizations; some were also organized by the public. The government competitions resulted in appointments to military posts for winners and were held in the capital as well as in the prefectures.

Controversy

Even though forms in Chinese martial arts are intended to depict realistic martial techniques, the movements are not always identical to how techniques would be applied in combat. Many forms have been elaborated upon, on the one hand to provide better combat preparedness, and on the other hand to look more aesthetically pleasing. One manifestation of this tendency toward elaboration beyond combat application is the use of lower stances and higher, stretching kicks. These two maneuvers are unrealistic in combat and are used in forms for exercise purposes.[56] Many modern schools have replaced practical defense or offense movements with acrobatic feats that are more spectacular to watch, thereby gaining favor during exhibitions and competitions.[note 2] This has led to criticisms by traditionalists of the endorsement of the more acrobatic, show-oriented Wushu competition.[57] Even though appearance has always been important in many traditional forms as well, all patterns exist for their combat functionality. Historically forms were often performed for entertainment purposes long before the advent of modern Wushu as practitioners have looked for supplementary income by performing on the streets or in theaters. As documented in ancient literature during the Tang Dynasty (618–907) and the Northern Song Dynasty (960–1279) suggest some sets, (including two + person sets: dui da, 對打 also called dui lian, 對 練) became very elaborate and ‘flowery’, many mainly concerned with aesthetics. During this time, some martial arts systems devolved to the point that they became popular forms of martial art storytelling entertainment shows. This created an entire category of martial arts known as Hua Fa Wuyi, 花法武藝 – fancy patterns for developing military skill. During the Northern Song period, it was noted by historians this type of training had a negative influence on training in the military.

Many traditional Chinese martial artists, as well as practitioners of modern sport combat, have become critical of the perception that forms work is more relevant to the art than sparring and drill application, while most continue to see traditional forms practice within the traditional context—as vital to both proper combat execution, the Shaolin aesthetic as art form, as well as upholding the meditative function of the physical art form.[58]

Another reason why techniques often appear different in forms when contrasted with sparring application is thought by some to come from the concealment of the actual functions of the techniques from outsiders.[59]

Wushu

Modern forms are used in the sport of wushu, as seen in this staff routine

See also: Wushu (sport)

“‘Wu’ 武” is translated as ‘martial’ in English, however in terms of etymology, this word has a slightly different meaning. In Chinese, “wu 武” is made up of two parts, the first meaning “stop”(zhi 止) and the second meaning “invaders lance” (je 戈). This implies that “wu’ 武,” is a defensive use of combat. The term “wushu 武術” meaning martial arts goes back only to the beginning of the 20th century. Prior to that it meant military affairs. The earliest term found in the Han History (206BC-23AD) was “bing jiqiao” 兵技巧，military fighting techniques. During the Song period (c960) the name changed to “wuyi” 武艺，literally “martial arts”. In 1928 the name was changed to “guoshu” 国术 or “national arts” when the National Martial Arts Academy was established in Nanjing. The term reverted to “wushu” 武術 under the People’s Republic of China during the early 1950s.

As forms have grown in complexity and quantity over the years, and many forms alone could be practiced for a lifetime, modern styles of Chinese martial arts have developed that concentrate solely on forms, and do not practice application at all. These styles are primarily aimed at exhibition and competition, and often include more acrobatic jumps and movements added for enhanced visual effect[60] compared to the traditional styles. Those who generally prefer to practice traditional styles, focused less on exhibition, are often referred to as traditionalists. Some traditionalists consider the competition forms of today’s Chinese martial arts as too commercialized and losing much of its original values.[61][62]

“Martial Morality”

Traditional Chinese schools of martial arts, such as the famed Shaolin monks, often dealt with the study of martial arts not just as a means of self-defense or mental training, but as a system of ethics.[39][63] Wude (武 德) can be translated as “martial morality” and is constructed from the words “wu” (武), which means martial, and “de” (德), which means morality. Wude (武德) deals with two aspects; “morality of deed” and “morality of mind”. Morality of deed concerns social relations; morality of mind is meant to cultivate the inner harmony between the emotional mind (Xin, 心) and the wisdom mind (Hui, 慧). The ultimate goal is reaching “no extremity” (Wuji, 無 極) (closely related to the Taoist concept of wu wei), where both wisdom and emotions are in harmony with each other.

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  29. ^ Amos, Daniel Miles (University Microfilms International) [1983].Marginality and the Hero’s Art: Martial artists in Hong Kong and Guangzhou (Canton). University of California at Los Angeles. pp. 280. ASIN B00073D66A. Retrieved 12/7/2011.
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  32. ^ Riordan, Jim (1999-09-14). Sport and Physical Education in China. Spon Press (UK). ISBN 0-419-24750-5. p.15
  33. ^ Minutes of the 8th IWUF Congress, International Wushu Federation, December 9, 2005 (accessed 01/2007)
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  37. ^ Liang, Shou-Yu; Wen-Ching Wu (2006-04-01). Kung Fu Elements. The Way of the Dragon Publishing. ISBN 1-889659-32-0.
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  39. ^ a b Hsu, Adam (1998-04-15). The Sword Polisher’s Record: The Way of Kung-Fu (1st ed.). Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3138-6.
  40. ^ Wong, Kiew Kit (2002-11-15). The Art of Shaolin Kung Fu: The Secrets of Kung Fu for Self-Defense, Health, and Enlightenment. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3439-3.
  41. ^ Kit, Wong Kiew (2002-05-01). The Complete Book of Shaolin: Comprehensive Program for Physical, Emotional, Mental and Spiritual Development. Cosmos Publishing. ISBN 983-40879-1-8.
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  43. ^ Mark, Bow-Sim (1981). Wushu basic training (The Chinese Wushu Research Institute book series). Chinese Wushu Research Institute. ASIN B00070I1FE.
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  45. ^ Jwing-Ming, Yang (1998-06-25). Qigong for Health & Martial Arts, Second Edition: Exercises and Meditation (Qigong, Health and Healing) (2 ed.). YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 1-886969-57-4.
  46. ^ Raposa, Michael L. (November 2003). Meditation & the Martial Arts (Studies in Rel & Culture). University of Virginia Press. ISBN 0-8139-2238-0.
  47. ^ Ernst, Edzard; Simon Singh (2009). Trick or treatment: The undeniable facts about alternative medicine. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0393337785.
  48. ^ Montaigue, Erle; Wally Simpson (March 1997). The Main Meridians (Encyclopedia Of Dim-Mak). Paladin Press. ISBN 1-58160-537-4.
  49. ^ Yang, Jwing-Ming (1999-06-25). Ancient Chinese Weapons, Second Edition: The Martial Arts Guide. YMAA Publication Center.ISBN 1-886969-67-1.
  50. ^ Wang, Ju-Rong; Wen-Ching Wu (2006-06-13). Sword Imperatives—Mastering the Kung Fu and Tai Chi Sword. The Way of the Dragon Publishing. ISBN 1-889659-25-8.
  51. ^ Lo, Man Kam (2001-11-01). Police Kung Fu: The Personal Combat Handbook of the Taiwan National Police. Tuttle Publishing. ISBN 0-8048-3271-4.
  52. ^ Shengli, Lu (2006-02-09). Combat Techniques of Taiji, Xingyi, and Bagua: Principles and Practices of Internal Martial Arts. trans. Zhang Yun. Blue Snake Books. ISBN 1-58394-145-2.
  53. ^ Hui, Mizhou (July 1996). San Shou Kung Fu Of The Chinese Red Army: Practical Skills And Theory Of Unarmed Combat. Paladin Press. ISBN 0-87364-884-6.
  54. ^ Liang, Shou-Yu; Tai D. Ngo (1997-04-25). Chinese Fast Wrestling for Fighting: The Art of San Shou Kuai Jiao Throws, Takedowns, & Ground-Fighting. YMAA Publication Center. ISBN 1-886969-49-3.
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Overtones. Live power of sound

 

Overtones – included in the spectrum of any sound. That its component, which has the lowest frequency is called the fundamental tone. Overtones heard above the fundamental. Their frequencies are located in the natural harmonic order. In the beginning was the sound. Sound started the whole of our universe, in final analysis developed in the complex structure. Our whole world is full of sounds. Sounds – is “building blocks” that are the building being. This book describes in general terms that such overtones, and what effect they have on people. Of course, we will touch on this topic only briefly.

Each of us is able to distinguish between “good” and “bad” sound. Part of the sounds in the environment are evaluated subjectively, but the impact of most of them can be fixed with help and measure instruments. We can objectively characterize the impact on our mood, tone, heart rate, brain waves and digestion. This implies, in particular, that the effect of sound on the body are largely beyond our control, if it is not desired, the only way to counter it – shut out from the sound source, and it is not always possible.

Studies have shown that low frequency sounds have mostly negative effects. They cause tiredness and depression, or are perceived as threatening (such as thunder or a rumbling earthquake). On the contrary, higher affect us positively, increasing energy levels, both physical and mental. It is here and come into play harmonic overtones. Overtones – is subtle, subtle overtones of high frequency related to all the sounds around us. Only the harmonic overtones can give us courage and charge us with energy.

Harmonic overtones literally recharge our internal batteries vitality. It’s enough to just listen to the game on certain musical instruments, producing a wide range of overtones. And you can also use the simplest tool we know – our own voice!

Shades of Sound

his chapter we describe the basic theory that describes the properties of overtones. Theory helps to satisfy the natural curiosity of the research, when asked what’s behind this amazing phenomenon. However, the practice in this respect is indispensable: to understand that such overtones, they should be listening to or singing. The best way to understand the properties of the overtones is through direct, personal experience. So, reading books on the subject, do not forget that this is just a preparation for this training.

Overtones should be studied experimentally. Experience – the best teacher. World overtones – a kind of a different reality in which you want to dive with his head in order to understand its true meaning. The answers depend on how we formulate the questions. For example, if you ask why the tears salted, in response to you can tell us about the chemical composition of tears and about how our taste buds. But if you ask, which is why the tears salty, you can tell about the function of tears as one of the defense mechanisms of the body.

Plunging vmir overtones should bear this in mind. What exactly do we care – form or function?

Several scientific terms

What does it take to extract the audio? Elastic material (such as guitar strings), the source of energy needed to cause the material to vibrate (fingers guitarist) and Wednesday, in which resulting sound can spread. This medium is the air around us, as well as body tissue and the air contained in its cavities. In our example, the environment, amplifying vibrations, is also a wooden guitar body. The speed of sound in air is 300 to 336 meters per second (depending on temperature and humidity).

Our perception of sound, or tone, by a number of its properties. One of these properties – the frequency of vibration, that is, the number of full cycles of the oscillatory motion committed the sound source in one second. Unit of frequency – Hertz (Hz), the number of vibrations per second. The second property – pitch. Playing on stringed instruments, artist presses the strings to the fingerboard finger at various locations to get the sound of a high. System tones of musical scale (C defgahc , or to p emi F G A B up ).

Amplitude – is the power of the energy required to produce this sound. The amplitude is measured in decibels and can be set from 0 to 120. It is also called volume. However, the volume is perceived extremely subjective: to remove some colors require more energy than others, with the same volume, and some people are able to hear very high or very low notes, while others are not (which, incidentally, is not always indicative of the hearing impaired) .

The lowest tone, accessible to the human ear (meaning the average person with a good ear) – 20 Hz (cycles per second) at a wavelength of 16.78 meters. The highest audible tone – about 20,000 Hz at a wavelength of 17 centimeters. Unfortunately, these days many young people spoil their hearing loud music. sound therapy  tests show that more than 70% of young people under the age of 20 years are not able to perceive frequencies above 17,000 Hz. This is very unfortunate, since it is the high frequencies not only determine the wealth and richness of sound – the distinctive feature of the human voice (the same hearing impairment, among other things, due to the fact that many young people are now saying “flat”, expressionless voice), but also contains a special type of life energy, we need it for good health. Purified high-frequency sounds are used in sound therapy. They saturate the body and soul with energy and contribute to the treatment of various diseases.

Resonance – well we are all familiar phenomenon. Its power can be felt at the piano banging a tuning fork as it certainly makes your music teacher at school, or being on the bridge at a time on it in the leg walking a large group of people. The perception of music and each sound is largely determined by the resonance. They have a choice as concert halls: the building plan should provide a good response. Appeared to resonance vibration source needed, whether a musical instrument or lightning in the sky, and a resonating material – for example, building a violin or even the walls and window panes house responds to the powerful vibrations of thunder and airplanes.

The resonance of a higher level – is the interaction of all the musicians of the orchestra. That we may hear the harmony, the musicians have to “tune in” to each other and to obey the instructions of the conductor. And then it all depends on luck. This phenomenon is well described in the book by John Diamond’s “life energy in music» (John Diamond. The Life Energy in Music, I, II, III. Archeus Press, 1981).

Primary audio

n the world of pure overtones and resonance was opened by Professor Arnold Keyserling from Vienna (Austria). He called it a “primary” sound. This special musical scale never before used in Western music. Keyserling pupil Ralph Losey improved this scale and created the music from it. Special and unique power of the primary sound is that they are fine-tuned to the basic energy of the human body – the energy of the chakras and some alfaritmy brain. Come into resonance with the music, the energy increase, which causes extremely powerful, sometimes incredible feeling. Listener literally feel the vibration of sound in different parts of his body. Losey calls this procedure “setting of life” – and he is absolutely right!

The ancient Chinese, Indians and Greeks discovered harmonics – the complex harmonic oscillations, which makes each finely tuned musical instrument, as well as the human vocal cords. These harmonics – certain frequencies, following one another in a particular order – give individual sounds and music in general saturation and richness. They are directly connected with all the natural frequency ratio on the planet and in the universe.The music and singing the natural harmonics are perceived as pleasant, soothing, mellifluous, in contrast to the chaotic and dissonant sounds inherently unpleasant and disturbing. This is true not only for people but also for animals and plants.

Sequence of natural harmonics by strict mathematical relationships (root + overtones). That is why their vibrations to literally restore order in our body, thereby greatly improving health. Moreover, the harmonics, especially at high frequency, have a direct therapeutic effect – or, more accurately, create a favorable environment conducive to natural healing of body and mind.

In conclusion, let us consider another term – timbre, or coloration. Some instruments and voices produce more complex or more harmonic overtones than others. Timbre, you can determine what kind of data the tool produces sounds that way we distinguish tools from each other, even when they sound the same height. Thus, the natural harmonic overtones determine ottenkia sounds and music.

Sounds devoid of harmonic overtones – empty, dull and cold. In nature they are almost never found, they can be obtained only by means of electronic equipment. If we write the sounds of various musical instruments – such as piano, flute and guitar – and then using special equipment to clean them from all natural harmonic overtones, we can no longer distinguish them from each other: all the tools voices.

At the dawn of the computer record to adequately digitize the full range of multiple harmonic overtones was not. The result of this “cool” music that has nothing to do with the original sound. But since then, the technology has leaped forward, and music CDs now get a really high-quality recordings. Similarly, in the 60 years of XX century electronic music was cold and flat, but these days, electronic musical instruments, and improved yield superior sound, rich harmonic overtones.

We have students in our Walnut Creek ,Ca  yoga tai chi qigong class studio from following zip codes: 94595 94596 94597 94598 94523 94506 94507 94526 94553 94518 94519 94520 94521 94517 94549 94563 94575 94582 94583, and beyond.
 
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by

Robert Thurman “Family it’s a monastery”

The festival of Tibetan culture arrived  founder Tibet House in New York, Columbia University professor Robert Thurman , known to the public as well thanks to a brilliant acting career of her daughter, Uma Thurman. On Tibet, Buddhism and film with Robert Thurman spoke newspaper correspondent Igor Potapov.

– When did you first become interested in Buddhism, you perceive it more as a philosophy or a religion?

– Of course, as a philosophy. I was never a religious type, and I never had the patience to dive into the religion with his head. I’m too lazy to be religious. On the other hand, the Tibetan Buddhist philosophy truly excites me – it has a very strong critical and analytical tradition. You may not know it, but Tibetan philosophy came to the notion of relativity hundreds of years before Einstein. Their concept, the indivisible atom is the basis of everything, and all that seems to us a uniform matter, in fact vague and relative. In the understanding of Buddhist man grasps the essence with your own mind. That is why the Buddhist psychology is the queen of sciences.

– You are known as the first man from the West who became a Tibetan Buddhist monk …

– And the ex-monk, too! (Laughs.)

– What was the reason for your return to the world?

– In Buddhism, when a person goes to the monks, which means lifelong commitment. At twenty years old, I was naive enough and sincerely believed that he was ready for such a commitment. But my first teacher, who happened to live in the West, has convinced me that it is not for me. “You’re doing great – he told me – live like a monk, to work, to study the basics of Buddhism, but in a few years you will not survive.” At first I myself stubborn, but then I started to realize that he has in mind. In Tibetan society to become a monk means a great honor and fortune. Such a person enjoys the universal respect and love surrounding him strongly support the correctness of the chosen path. As for my family and friends, they regarded my actions more as a result of insanity. This was not at all happy for the young Robert, who “escaped the temptations and dangers of adult life.” All I heard was probably “yes you really pulled off the rails!”. Therefore, on the advice of his teacher, and after proper consideration, I have decided to continue to study Buddhism in a scientific manner, educated and became a professor. I continue to be a Buddhist, but not as a monk, which pleased. Otherwise I would not have married a wonderful woman and have such wonderful children!

– In one of your interviews you compare the University of the monastery. Can we say that the family is in a sense also a monastery, which requires a certain self-restraint?

– Of course. At one time I used to say that something like the individual family monastery for Westerners. In the family, we learn patience, compassion, generosity, and so on. However, the last ten or fifteen years, I hold a different theory. For a long time I believed that our society has completely eliminated the need for a system of monastic novitiate, but after a more thorough study of the history of Western civilization realized that was not right. Now I’m sure that a monk may be the only antidote to militarism.In China, India, Japan, parts of medieval Europe – the stronger the monasteries, the less does the level of militarization of society. If young people have no place to learn self-control and self-restraint, they were unable to restrain natural aggression – then they belong in the military. Soldiers like the monk: shaved head, uniform, ready to die at any moment. But the soldier is subject to aggression, his goal – to achieve maximum brutality. Monk also drew their efforts on to defeat himself, his weakness. By the way, in family life also have to learn to overcome their own weaknesses. That is why in the army so reluctant to see a mature, married men – because they have a responsibility to their children, are not inclined to obey orders meaningless and certainly not ready to sudden death. Militarism in the world today – a big problem, and I lose my temper when the president of my own country begins to talk nonsense about the “necessity of war” and about “crusades”. I do not think this man as their leader, I want my children and grandchildren to live in the world.

– Tell me why you have given your children the Buddhist names – there was some sacred meaning?

– It was not of any religious meaning. As I said, I can not call myself an orthodox Buddhist, and I’m not going to do the Buddhists of their children. They have grown fearful debaters are subjected to all the doubts, all the analyzes, and I’m glad, because I can not stand religious fanatics. If one of my children ask, “Do you Buddhist?” He did not answer “yes” or “no.” He immediately asks: “What do you mean? Who do you think should be called a Buddhist? “As for names, we just like the way they sound. But each of our children has a second, western name. Interestingly, all our children will choose, what names to use, and eventually all chose Buddhist names.

– What do you feel when you see your daughter in the film, full of aggression and violence, because it is certainly contrary to the Buddhist principles?

– Yeah … “Kill Bill,” “Pulp Fiction.” But this is all the films of Quentin Tarantino, and when it comes to directors like Tarantino or Oliver Stone, I wonder if they resorted to violence for the sake of demonstration violence or want to say something more? I do not find answers to. Is creativity Tarantino marginal notes HK militants and spaghetti westerns, which is already quite far from reality? Or it shows violence in an attractive light, turns it into a “severe glamor”? Or he shows violence to make people better understand the nature of violence? If the film shows real violence unvarnished, to call people rejection of violence, I – for! If it is utterly false scuffle like action movies, I – against. As for Uma, I’m her biggest fan. Quentin – my friend, I’ve talked to him, and I think his views on the nature of violence are similar to mine. Another question, if he does not come often in his movies too far …

– What do you think of the image of the Buddhist doctrine in the film?

– There are good and honest film, such as “Little Buddha” by Bernardo Bertolucci and “Seven Years in Tibet.” By the way, I’m familiar with Heinrich Harrer, whose role in the film “Seven Years in Tibet” played Brad Pitt. Harrer was not a Buddhist, though he loved the culture of Tibet, and it became a great scholar. But these films – a rare exception, and often portrayed Buddhism as something akin to a black art. For example, a recent action film “Bulletproof Monk” with Chow Yun-Fathom – utter nonsense! I myself was a monk, so I’m a little sad. Generally, speculation on the relationship between Buddhism and martial arts – a foolish and wasteful exercise. Kung Fu is based on the denial of aggression. If in a fight one of the men give way aggression, it will lose the inner balance and inevitably lose. The idea of a martial art is that, using the form, behind which hides the violence, stop it. Buddhist – this is not the one who proclaims, “Hit me again!” Buddhist concept of denial of aggression in order to demonstrate that the peaceful resolution of the conflict more effectively enforced.

– Tell us about your experience filming, because you played a small role in “Hamlet” by Michael Almereydy.

– Yes, I played there the priest, and my son Dechen starred as Guildenstern. I liked it. We invited my son (husband of Uma Thurman Ethan Hawke. – Newspaper), who played most of Hamlet. Unfortunately, they have now with Uma on the problem, as it happens in young people. Acting in the movie was very funny. There I said three words and appears in episode three seconds, which later installation cut two! (Laughs) By the way, I am now involved in the filming of David Russell’s “Deal» (‘I heart Huckabees’, the newspapers reported about this in number 170 of September 15, in connection with the film festival in Toronto). Russell considers himself my disciple, so he asked for my advice in writing the script, which was originally called “existential detective”, and even gave the actors read my books. Now we work with him on a new script. I’m a bit tired of teaching in the university and in the world today, I think cinema is the best way to introduce people to new ideas.

– Your wife Nena was the wife of the famous LSD advocate Timothy Leary …

– Just a few years – before I came and rescued her from the union! (Laughs.)

– Can you compare the mass hobby Eastern religions and philosophies in the West in the 1960s and 1970s, finding ways to increase awareness, artistic inspiration, which were experimenting with drugs?

– Before any boundaries such a comparison is indeed possible. In my case, the meeting with the study of Buddhism was conscious boundaries of reality. By the way, I really like the first film of the trilogy “The Matrix” . I too was looking for the metaphorical red pill, I know what lies behind the reality around us. I went to church and learned about the so-called Christian Science, studied Plato and Kant, Wittgenstein and Heidegger, but I did not have the feeling that Western philosophy has the answer to my questions.

Gradually, I learned a few things about yoga, then – about Buddhism, and so it all began. By the way, I began to Oriental philosophy before the start of the 1960s, before it became fashionable. But the question that interested me was the same as that of those who turned to Buddhism later: how to control your emotions, what is the meaning of life, how to find happiness? Note that Buddhism offers its followers to be happy! Priests tell us: “You can not be happy, because there is happiness, there is hiding somewhere unclean.” Scientists tell us, ‘You can not be happy, because science has not yet found a suitable chemical substance. ” And the Buddhists say, “Be happy every day of your life!” The purpose of life is to be happy. And it’s not euphoria minute and lasting happiness. I was lucky in my life, I was close to happiness, but I’m still looking, and I have a feeling that all this time I was on the right track.

American monk
Robert Thurman was born in 1941 in New York. In his twenties, went to Tibet, where he became the first American in history, shorn a Buddhist monk. In 1967, he returned to the United States, graduated from Harvard with a degree Indology and since then has been studying and teaching the Buddhist religion. He is the author of popular books on Buddhist philosophy and culture of Tibet. In 1987, together with the famous actor Richard Gere Thurman founded the non-profit organization ‘Tibet House’ in New York, and in 1988 he headed the Department of Indo-Tibetan Buddhism at the Department of Religious Studies at the University of Columbia. Father of five children, including the famous actress Uma Thurman.

 

We have students in our Walnut Creek ,Ca  yoga tai chi qigong class studio from following zip codes: 94595 94596 94597 94598 94523 94506 94507 94526 94553 94518 94519 94520 94521 94517 94549 94563 94575 94582 94583, and beyond.
 
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